A “Brave New World”-perspective analysis Essay

Imagine Brenda, a woman who will not under any circumstances trade her life in order to be conditioned, and then live as a Beta in the Brave New World (BNW), universe. If this is the case, then Brenda could not consistently accept Hedonism. This is due to the definition of Hedonism, the amount and intensity of bodily pleasure in Brave New World (BNW), and the amount and intensity of bodily pleasure here in real life. The definition of Hedonism leads one to maximize the amount of pleasure and minimize the amount of pain: The only thing intrinsically good in life is pleasure, and the only thing intrinsically bad in life is pain. Other things in life have extrinsic value – they can lead to either pain or pleasure, but do not produce the sensations by themselves. However, Hedonists are only concerned with pleasure and pain, as these are the only intrinsic values. The distinctive factor that determines a better life from a worse one, is the amount of net pleasure in one’s life. The net pleasure is determined by subtracting the amount of pain in one’s life from the amount of pleasure. Notice that Hedonism only determines better lives from worse ones, not good from bad. To make the distinction between good and bad is an arbitrary decision and cannot be measured through a comparable medium such as net pleasure. Quantitative Hedonism states that quantity and intensity are the only criteria that determine just how good a certain pleasure is. If all pleasures differ only in quantity and duration, then the world in BNW is a dream for hedonists. One’s life in BNW is conditioned to be content and happy with one’s, job, class in life, and the daily schedule of life. This schedule for one’s life never changes and so delivers a maximum amount of pleasure due to being happy and content. High pleasure in BNW also comes from the open sexual relations between people. Basically, it is encouraged from childhood to have as many sex partners as possible, therefore maximizing the amount of pleasure from sex. The drug of choice in BNW is called Soma, and it delivers an amazing feeling without any hangover effect like alcohol. This drug is distributed daily at one’s work to maximize one’s amount of body pleasure. With all of these factors enhancing pleasure, it is also important to state that not much causes pain for one’s life in BNW. There are no personal relationships to cause pain, jobs and education are  given specifically for people, and life is very much planned and repetitive. This repetition is what maximizes the amount and duration of pleasure in BNW lives. In real life, there does not exist anything like the above mentioned pleasures, in either quantity or duration. Therefore, when comparing the net pleasure of a life in BNW to a real earthly life, a hedonist finds that BNW lives have a higher net pleasure, and are thus far better. This is because they in BNW have much more intrinsically good pleasure, and much less disappointment and intrinsically bad events. So, if Brenda refuses to trade her life in order to be conditioned and live a BNW life, then she could not consistently accept hedonism because trading her life would give her a higher net pleasure, and by definition , a better life. Brenda still could accept hedonism if she accepted qualitative hedonism, based on Mill’s distinction between ‘higher’ and ‘lower’ pleasures. According to Mill’s, certain pleasures have a distinct higher value than other pleasures. This can be due to a mere preference for one pleasure over another, with the preferred pleasure having more intrinsic value because it is preferred, and thus more net pleasure. This can also be due preferring higher intellectual ‘mind’ pleasures, as opposed to body pleasures like those in BNW. Mill’s distinction goes hand in hand with qualitative hedonism, which adds quality to the criteria distinguishing pleasure (intensity and duration). Higher quality pleasure are generally thought to be intellectual and creative pleasures as compared to bestial pleasures. Intimate relationships can also be thought of as being a higher quality pleasure. It is not substantial, however, that these higher pleasures merely exist – for a hedonist, these higher pleasure must contribute to a higher net pleasure in life in order to be of value. Since there are absolutely no intellectual or intimate pleasures in BNW, the argument could be made that the intellectual and intimate pleasures in real life give higher net pleasure, and thus a better life. This theory also takes into account the pain that may be caused by relationships or by not attaining certain intellectual milestones. However, the argument can be made that the pleasure derived from these higher pleasures far surpasses any pain caused by them and guarantees a higher net pleasure than any life in BNW. If Brenda adopts this method of thinking, then she could both accept hedonism and still not  want to trade her life for a life in BNW. A qualitative hedonist, in order to consistently believe that actual life is better, must claim that the overall net pleasure one receives in real life is more than the net pleasure one receives in the BNW universe. One must claim that experiences in actual life, including but not limited to intellectual and intimate pleasures, produce more net pleasure than a life of bestial pleasures in BNW. This includes all of the pain and hardships experienced in real life, but not in BNW. The argument is that even with all of this pain, the net pleasure is still higher in real life. This is also what Brenda must adhere to if she wishes to not trade her real life for a conditioned BNW life.

Juvenile Offenders: Race and Ethnicity Essay

â€Å"Researchers have long observed differences in rates of serious juvenile and adult offending among ethnic and racial groups in the United States. These differences have prompted competing theoretical interpretations and public policy debates. However, conclusions about the racial differences in serious and violent juvenile offending have been reached primarily using individual-level data that, when used alone, yield incomplete results. Multilevel analyses that consider community and contextual factors have the potential to produce a fuller understanding of the meaning of these differences (, 2002).† This paper will first describe the racial distribution of serious and violent offending among juveniles in the United States. It will provide a picture of the short-term national trends for offending patterns by race and ethnicity and summarize research findings on racial and ethnic differences in chronic juvenile offending. Various explanations are given for the racial and ethnic differences. This paper will include recommendations for improving understandings of these differences and implications for guiding prevention and intervention efforts. Data from the 1998 UCR indicates that differential rates of arrest for crime are related to race (Snyder, 1999). Arrests of white juveniles (under age 18) constituted 71 percent of all juvenile arrests compared with 26 percent for black youth. American Indian or Alaska Native and Asian or Pacific Islanders account for 1 and 2 percent, respectively (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1999). Black youth were overrepresented, given the fact that they make up 15 percent of the juvenile population compared with 79 percent white and 5 percent other races. The distribution by index crime type varies, however. Black youth accounted for 42 percent of arrests for violent crime compared with 55 percent for white youth (3 percent were youth of other races). Black youth, when compared with white youth, were most overrepresented in arrests for robbery (54 percent and 43 percent, respectively) and murder and non-negligent manslaughter (49 percent and 47 percent, respectively). Black youth were least disproportionately involved in arson arrests (18 percent and 80 percent, respectively) (Snyder, 1999; Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1999). Juvenile involvement in crime by race has been generally consistent over the past several decades (LaFree, 1995). However, the racial gap in rates of homicide widened dramatically between 1986 and 1994. Black youth were responsible for the majority of the increase in homicides by juveniles in these years â€Å"and for the majority of the decline thereafter† (Snyder and Sickmund, 1999). If all serious crime is considered, a more complex picture emerges. Between 1983 and 1992, the juvenile arrest rates for all types of violent crimes increased 82 percent among white youth and 43 percent among black youth (Snyder and Sickmund, 1995). The pattern of change was greatest for robbery and homicide arrest rates. In 1983, black youth were approximately five times more likely to be arrested for homicide than were white youth; in 1992, that ratio was more than seven to one. What is the meaning of these race-specific trends in violence? Blumstein (1995) attributed the growth of youth homicide to illicit drug markets into which youth had been recruited. Juveniles working in these markets armed themselves, and so the use of guns was â€Å"diffused† to other teenagers in the community. The notion of gun diffusion is supported by the concomitant increase in the homicide rate among black juveniles from 1986 to 1994 but has not been supported by other research (Howell, 1997). More comparative research is needed to understand racial and ethnic differences in rates of offending. In this area of research, a number of case studies were conducted in several U.S. cities in the 1980’s among youth of Hispanic ancestry. Between 1980 and 1985, homicide arrest rates for 10 to 17 year old Hispanics in New York City were more than twice those of whites (Rodriguez, 1988). In southern California, the homicide death rate for 15 to 24 year old Latino males during 1980 was more than four times the rate for white Anglo males (Valdez, Nourjah, and Nourjah, 1988). At the same time in Chicago, Latino males between ages 15 and 19 were homicide victims 4 ½ times more often than non-Latino white males (Block, 1988). These findings suggest the importance of taking ethnicity into consideration when examining youth violence data. Another factor to consider when interpreting racial and ethnic differences is the length of time and degree to which youth are involved in serious crime. UCR data are not helpful in this regard. However, a few longitudinal studies have shed some light on this issue using official data. Relying on police data from a 1945 Philadelphia cohort, Wolfgang, Figlio, and Sellin (1972) found that race and socioeconomic status were related to the frequency and seriousness of offenses. These findings were confirmed using the 1958 Philadelphia cohort. However, more data are needed to fully understand the relationship between race and chronic offending. Researchers and criminologists have long been aware of racial and ethnic differences in serious juvenile offending. Interpreting these disparities, however, is another matter; no one theory has adequately addressed the reasons for them. Criminologists have not paid enough attention to the extent to which socioeconomic disparity accounts for differences in rates of violence, even though they have tended to attribute high rates of crime to economic disadvantages. These omissions are in part due to reliance on individual-level data to identify those persons most likely to offend. However, individual-centered research is unlikely to improve understanding of the group differences. It does not take into consideration the larger socio-structural characteristics that distinguish groups and individuals. For example, the developmental life courses of blacks and whites in the United States are affected by their membership in historically distinct social and economic groups. Community-level research can be used to study this larger context and offer great potential in interpreting the meaning of racial and ethnic differences in offending. Reference Blumstein, A. 1995. Youth violence, guns, and the illicit-drug industry. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 86(1):10-36. Howell, J.C. 1997. Youth gang homicides, drug trafficking, and program interventions. In Juvenile Justice and Youth Violence, edited by J.C. Howell. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp. 115-132. Federal Bureau of Investigation. 1999. Crime in the United States 1998. Uniform Crime Reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Snyder, H.N. 1999. Juvenile Arrests 1998. Bulletin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Snyder, H.N., and Sickmund, M. 1995. Juvenile Offenders and Victims: A National Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Snyder, H.N., and Sickmund, M. 1999. Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 1999 National Report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Wolfgang, M.E., Figlio, R.M., and Sellin, T. 1972. Delinquency in a Birth Cohort. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Promoting Meaningful Learning in All Student Populations Research Paper

Promoting Meaningful Learning in All Student Populations - Research Paper Example Meaningful learning refers to the gained knowledge that is fully understood by the individuals and they know how that fact is related to other situations that are happening around them. On the other hand, in rote learning the students are required to memorize the concept without developing full understanding and hence, they are unable to relate the new information with the previous one. As the brains stores data in distinct form therefore, in rote learning students are unable to relate different ideas with each other and in such a case, knowledge can only be retrieved by them from the brain when it is recalled individually. On the other hand, in meaningful learning, the facts are stored in a relational manner. In this way, the knowledge is stored together and is related to each other. In this manner, when one fact is recalled the brain recalls the other facts automatically. Understanding of the Article In the article, Promoting Students’ Learning in Genetics with the Learning Cycle, Dogru-Atay, Pinar Tekkaya and Ceren (2008) discusses that though it is important for the institutes to adopt promotional learning for the students, there are however few of the abstract concepts like genetics that cannot be learned by the students only by meaningful understanding. For such difficult concepts, the study has designed a research on Learning Cycle. According to this pattern, the concept is passed to the students in three steps: exploration, concept introduction and concept application. In the exploration, the students are provided with the concrete experience that is inter-related to the content that is to be learned by them. This phase allows the students to gather all the information that they already know about the topic. Once the students have explored the idea, the teachers are then supposed to link the idea to the students’ knowledge with relevant scientific concept. After this step, the students are engaged in the additional activities in which the students apply their new knowledge to the situation. In this paper, the researcher talks about different methods that can be used for delivering the lecture. The different researches that are discussed in the paper show that through learning cycle, the students learn more than any other setting. The papers validate that the students who learn through meaningful learning are able to connect the various concepts with each other. The other advantage of meaningful learning is that students develop ability of reasoning. They do not only depend on the material given to them, they tend to develop personal understanding of the topic. The researcher has discussed that as through learning cycle the students are able develop reasoning ability, this approach also helps the students to solve the genetics problems. The other concept that is discussed in this article is the dependency of learning on the gender. Few of the discussed researches are of the view that there is no significant difference in biological achievements in boys and girls. On the other hand, other researchers have either favoured boys in their better understanding of the biological concepts or they have favoured girls. In this paper, to understand the genetic achievement of the students the researcher has used Genetics Achievement Test (GAT), Learning

Economics Debt Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economics Debt - Essay Example Historically, one of the main challenges to government leaders is the generation, and the application of a country’s wealth and resources towards â€Å"three main duties of great importance. These are as follows: protecting the country from violence and invasion; protecting, as far as possible, every member of the society from oppression and injustice, and thirdly, erecting and maintaining public works, public institutions, which can never be for the interest of any individual or group of individuals. Financing the state was basically through revenue raised through â€Å"taxes of one kind or another (Smith 476).1 Public debt was not unheard of, but was held suspect. In the last two decades, most countries have been experiencing periods where their outlays exceed their revenues, with no balanced budget in sight. Governments faced the formidable task of managing runaway budget deficits and growing public debts, both internal (owed to nationals), and external (owed to foreigners). To cover the shortfall or deficit, governments sell public assets, levy taxes, print and/or borrow money. Government borrowings to finance deficits create â€Å"public† debts, which need to be serviced through interest payments or through refinancing. Obligations of government resulting from issuing guarantees for a public sector enterprise added to the public debt become what are known as the â€Å"federal debt (Iqbal 2)2.† Available data showed that by 2007, 124 countries had been running on borrowings and that many of these countries had breached the acceptable level of public debt -to -GDP ratio. The US debt-to-GDP ratio had risen to 60.8 % in 2007. Other countries exhibited higher debt-to- GDP ratio; Japan’s debt-to-GDP ratio reached 170%, Germany, 64.9%, and Canada, 64.2 %( Nationmaster1)3. Public debt and budget deficits had become a global phenomenon and the principles of balanced budget and surplus became part of a

Angel response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Angel response - Essay Example in his character, in his whole nature, there was something attractive and elusive which allured women and disposed them in his favor; he knew that, and some force seemed to draw him, too, to them.† (Chekhov 1.5) Gurov also comes out as very judgmental where we see him refereeing to women as the lower race. Gurov’s relationship is founded by his past life and experience. Gurov is very important as the author uses him to develop almost every theme and depicts the main theme of a loveless marriage. Anna is no more of a main character as we spend less time with her as compared to Gurov. All we know about her is that she is 22 years old, married at a tender age and does not enjoy her marriage. Even the first time she has sex with her husband she was not satisfied. Anna just like her husband is eager to life â€Å" I have been tormented by curiosity† she said in one of the conversation (Chekhov 6) .Anna clearly contributes to the story in many ways which include where her unhappiness in life and her marriage depicts a scene of reality, where one draws a number of lessons from what she undergoes. I total agree with angel analysis of the story, the main character analysis is on point and very informing. Joe undergoes a series of related issues and he is left with no choice but to employ his detective skills; and all these he has to do in order to save lives. Jim analysis is also very informing and his contribution to the story’s plot is noted. Jim being younger and leaving his girlfriend enlightens him and when he teams up with Joe we find him being his side

Interprofessional Network Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Interprofessional Network - Case Study Example sional network based on the prevailing case study include from presiding judges, family court judges, court administrators, family court specialists, and program managers. Interpersonal associations among the responsible parties for the management of the family are significant (Knapp & Barnard, 1998). There is the value in regard to the professionalism being utilized in the description of the principles and values of the integrated family court as demonstrated by an individual regardless of whether the underlying member is a registered profession. The framework of the interprofessional network is mainly based on the evidence that is being interprofessional enhances profession specific identity. Development of the client-focused interprofessional network of the integrated family court mainly incorporated professional such as presiding judges, family court judges, court administrators, family court specialists, and program managers. The concept of an integrated Family Court system applies to numerous jurisdictions and possesses complexities in regard to executing of the procedures. Presiding judges in the integrated family courts serve the function of overseeing the whole process of the court proceeding (Knapp & Barnard, 1998). Moreover, the presiding judges ensure that there is fair trial for the family that would accomplish the jurisdiction’s unification of the family court. In contrast the standard judicial system’s case management of such matters is mainly based on the adversarial system, which adjudicates specific discrete issues in preparation for the trial an approach that is criticized for not being responsive to the dynamics of families in crisis. The judicial system is normally criticized by underlying parents and attorneys, and in corresponding in numerous cases judges, for trying to squeeze the problems of families in crisis into the prevailing traditional adversarial models with all the rules of the civil and criminal courts. Moreover, there has

IDPS Latest Roundup Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

IDPS Latest Roundup - Article Example 280) We worked as transformation leaders and managed to achieve the objectives for full utilisation of IDPS with greater success. We have been working to achieve fully automated systems through the use of Autodesk Revit ROBOT Structural Analysis and Autodesk Ecotet. Today, experts are using these systems to determine the type of framing material to meet their low CO2 emissions target as the changes in the method of building production is required and high degree of accuracy is needed in building production to satisfy the clients to meet the global challenges in building construction (Kim and Haas 764). One of the major setbacks of conventional word processing systems is that they are not able to adjust to the changing requirements. Some feel the learning curve is steep while others feel the errors in conventional word processing systems are very high (Pritschow et al. 280). Additionally, the need for using automated office tools is being realized by more and more offices. One of the inherent qualities of automated office tools such as Integrated Document Production System is their ease of use and its user friendly functions. IDPS utilized for the construction industry will integrate various important software products such as Orion, Autodesk and Atlas Pro. This will facilitate the structural engineers to get accurate measurements of the steel members of buildings. In early 2012, the IDPS group started using IT as a conventional method used for preparing architectural drawings and designs, as the process of preparation of tender documents was time consuming and difficult to work. The drawbacks of the conventional system were - †¢ The designs overlapped and with inadequate support for the management, it created a lack of coordination within the team members. †¢ The design process took 1-2 months, architectural drawings 3-4 months; structural drawing 3-4 months, mechanism electrical drawings 3-4 months, submission 1-2 months and the preparation of bill o f quantities took 3-4 months. Moreover, for the preparation of tender stage it took 20 months. †¢ The lack of coordination reduced the efficiency. †¢ Unnecessary pressure was created on resources and time, ultimately resulting in delay in implementation. †¢ The process involved lots of manual calculations resulting in human based calculation errors and delays, due to which the buildings in Brunei were not able to appear advanced. Advantages of using Integrated Document Production System The Integrated Document Production System which was started by the Department of Technical Services under the e-Government initiative has been successful in achieving the needed efficiency in preparing tender documents and implementing projects (Kahane and Rosenfeld 764). The tools which were included by the IDPS were - Autodesk Revit Architecture, Autodesk Revit Structure, Orion, Autedesk Revit MEP and Atlas Pro. Automation and use of robots speeded up the working, drawing preparation and improving the management of project; additionally improving coordination and integration of the project. It reduced the time needed for completing the projects and provided the needed rationale which worked on tender documents. Further, it was able to provide the analysis of the structure. IT was used to get the information that can be stored in one database and it allowed the administrator to handle and analyse the data in a better way. It also provided improved coordination in the construction industry in the field of quantity surveying, engineering,

Criminal justice Writing Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Criminal justice Writing Assignment - Essay Example The America’s Supreme Court has ruled that the capital punishment should reflect and express the conscience of the United States residents, and that its application must be measured against the community’s evolving decency standards. This current report indicates that 65 percent of US inhabitants do not believe that this form of punishment is deterrent to murder. Furthermore, over 30 percent believe that their moral beliefs would exclude them from serving on a death case. About 50 percent of the Americans today prefer the death penalty while about 40 percent prefer life in prison without parole, whereas 10 percent are undecided (William 8). There are several reasons why capital punishment needs to be abolished. First and foremost, capital punishment is an act of Murder. Its use is so arbitrary and violates the prohibition of eighth amendment from severe punishment. This eighth amendment requires that sentencing discretion in cases of capital be structured according to objective standards so as to eliminate discrimination and arbitrariness. Capital punishment is viewed as the cold-blood killing of an individual by the government in the name of justice. Therefore, the use of capital punishment in the United States should end because it is seen as the ultimate denial of human rights. This punishment is inhuman and it violates the rights of an individual. This punishment should not continue to be in use because there can never be justification for cruel treatment or torture (William 16). In addition, since 1975, over 150 individuals have had their capital case convictions overturned. 300 cases of non-capital have overturned since 1990 after DNA testing. Such mistakes sway the public confidence in the system of capital punishment. Nevertheless, capital punishment should be abolished because it is used in a discriminatory

Reading + Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading + Summary - Essay Example McAlister wrote that the Western curators and art collectors were arrogant enough to hold the belief that the Tut pieces should belong in a Western museum. McAlister also writes that Nixon convinced Sadat to allow the Tut pieces to come to American in the first place; implying that Nixon made the Tut visit possible, while portraying Sadat as a pushover. McAlister also proposes that the media’s advertising of the Tut exhibit by mentioning all of the gold, that the media was comparing the Tut exhibit to the current oil crisis. This was done by pointing out how rich the Middle East was. The author also shows that the Yom Kippur war with Israel, the cause of the oil crisis, was not as one sided, since Egypt made a show of force. The Yom Kippur war was also shown to have ended through US and the Soviet Union negotiated UN ceasefire. McAlister shows that the US is only interested in Egypt and the Middle East for their own interests. This author is offensive in several aspects of her points. First poor and middle class Americans in the seventies were not all art illiterate. Just because a person does not have money does not mean that the gold shown in the Tut exhibit was what drew the American masses. The media campaign is what drew the masses. Secondly the whole Middle East was and is not run by the US and the Soviet Union. Both Egypt and Israel were armed by the US and the Soviet Union, but by no means was the fight between anyone, but Egypt and Israel. It is arrogant to believe that the US interest is what the world revolves around. Thirdly McAlister obviously has not studied the Yom Kippur war in depth. Israel’s losses at the beginning were due as much to the lack of judgement of an Israeli general, General Bar On, and his creation of the Bar On line. The Bar On line was the line on the Suez Canal that other Israeli generals, General Ariel Sharon and others, warned

DECA- Commissary Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

DECA- Commissary - Research Paper Example The particular organization operates in the context of the US Department of Defense. Since its first appearance, DECA Commissary had to face the following problem: ethics related to the organization’s activities were often not appropriately promoted. For addressing this issue effectively, the organization’s managers decided to establish an ethical environment for others and introduce a plan for developing Positive Ethos across the organization. These efforts are described below using relevant literature, where necessary, for evaluating the appropriateness of the measures taken. It is proved that the organizational initiatives for the incorporation of ethics in the organizational culture have been successful but minor improvements would be made so that the high performance of the organization in regard to ethics is standardized. DECA Commissary - investigation of practices Company Overview DECA Commissary is an organization aiming to promote a particular plan: the provis ion of grocery to American Military, not only to the active members of the Military but also the retirees, at cost prices (DECA Commissary Overview). In this way, the Commissary helps the members of the Military to make a plan of living and to be released from stress related to the costs related to the particular type of food. According to the organization’s website, ‘the authorized patrons purchase items at cost plus a 5 percent surcharge’ (DECA Commissary Overview). As a result, the members of American Military and their family can enjoy a life of high quality, as possible, a fact that helps them to increase their readiness towards the challenges that they have to face daily (DECA Commissary Overview). The organization’s success up today is highly based on its ethical environment, which is based on certain principles, such as ‘excellence in quality, sense of urgency, high standards and innovation’ (DECA Commissary Mission, Vision, Values). E stablishing an Ethical Environment For Others The promotion of ethics within organizations has a series of benefits for stakeholders; reference is made in particular to those individuals who support the organization’s plans, i.e. employees, suppliers and shareholders, but also to those affected by the organization’s activities, such as the state and the public in general (Brown 2005). In practice, it has been proved that establishing an ethical environment in organizations can result to a series of benefits, such as ‘the improvement of society, the increase of productivity and teamwork and the promotion of ethical education as part of the organization’s strategies’ (Fernando 393). For Collins (2009) the criterion for considering a behavior as ethical is the following one: the particular action needs to have ‘an ethical motive and ethical consequences’ (Collins 5). In the context of organizations the above view would be translated as fol lows: a business plan would be ethical if the motives of its designers are ethical and if the consequences of the plan are expected to be ethical. In business environment, ethics is a concept related not just to society, i.e. morals, but also to business, i.e. ethical conduct. DECA Commissary has managed to establish an ethical environment for others through the following practices: a) at a first level, the organization tries to ensure that the members of the

The Changes in Law Enforcement Essay Example for Free

The Changes in Law Enforcement Essay All together law enforcement has changed, but few see the drastic changes that have happened. Everyday, police and sheriffs are working to keep the people in their community safe. With improved technological advances and social changes, police and sheriffs are keeping a closer eye on things today. For example, improved weapons such as tasers have helped keep suspects safe, computers in police cruisers allow instant access of information of individuals. Other social changes, such as women allowed to join the police forces have helped law enforcement a lot with domestic violence cases because they are calmer then most men. No matter what happens police and the sheriffs will be there to protect and serve their community everyday of the year, both nighttime and daytime; crime never sleeps and neither does law enforcement. Police have been a part of society for many years. However, â€Å"police as we know them today – an armed force maintained by the state to perform the functions and paid a salary rather than a share of fines – are a rather recent phenomenon† (Miller). Police forces were formed in all major US cities during the latter half of the nineteenth century† (Miller). According to Miller, police in the United States developed â€Å"†¦from the British tradition†. Like in London, police duties were limited to patrolling and gradually increased into investigation. Police should have been established earlier then the nineteenth century but society may have not been ready for it. â€Å"At the time of their founding, the police were viewed not as an out-growth o f the state’s ability to make law but as a manifestation of its ability to use violence† (Miller). Most people today say that wasn’t the reason why society created the police. Law Enforcement has its purpose in society. â€Å"The purpose of Law Enforcement is to prevent, interdict, and investigate crimes and prosecute criminals† (Miller). One of the key duties of any police department is to deter crime by visible presence. â€Å"Over time, however, investigating and solving crimes has evolved into one of the most important functions of the police† (Miller). If police do not prosecute the criminals, then the criminals will continue to run the streets causing havoc and putting innocent people in danger. The investigation of crimes has not changed since the rise of the police in the mid nineteenth century, but the way in which they go about it has changed a great deal† (Miller). With the use of fingerprints, DNA and video surveillance, it is now easier to identify the suspects. â€Å"Once a suspect has been identified, the police must supply the state†™s attorney with sufficient evidence to prove the suspects guilt† (Miller). This helps to ensure that the correct person is prosecuted. Even today laws are being enforced but eventually they will get broken. Law Enforcement has drastically changed throughout its creation in the year of 1667. â€Å"Law Enforcement officers are facing a tougher environment today interacting with a greater diversity of people of many cultures, faiths, race and lifestyles† (St. Hilaire). People need to realize that the police are here to help them no matter what they believe in. â€Å"As many officers have experienced recently that we as a profession are receiving the frustrations of the public over many issues including hatred of our government† (St. Hilaire). Just because the government is not perfect does not mean that police do not want to help the public. â€Å"Some changes we may not have control over like shift schedules, assignments, the color of the uniform shirt and the outcome of other’s actions† (St. Hilaire). Obviously, the government cannot control what a police station does because if they change something it can put everything out of order. With everything that has happened, Law Enforcement has made itself worthy of serving the community. Another key change in Law Enforcement is the use of force. The Rodney King incident brought into question the use of force by law enforcement. â€Å"The King affair transformed basic practices of policing, not just in Los Angeles but across the country† (Deutsch). Many of the changes had been needed for years, but were never addressed. â€Å"The king beating and trial set in motion overdue reforms in the LAPD and that had a ripple effect of law enforcement throughout the country† (Deutsch). Since this had such a major effect on the lapd in almost destroyed their reputation. The Rodney King beating almost destroyed the reputation of the Los Angeles Police Department. In the aftermath of the Rodney king beating a lot of things changed with police on the field. â€Å"In the wake of the Rodney king case; cameras became standard equipment in patrol cars all over the nation† (Marcou). In doing this police now cannot cover up an incident that they were a part of. â€Å"As far as citizens recording police, there is still much disagreement about how it should be handled† (Marcou). Nowhere in the constitution does it say the citizens cannot film stuff that is happening outside their house. â€Å"When it comes to training, officers are told â€Å"have your camera going at all times.

Needs Analysis Essay Example for Free

Needs Analysis Essay Majority of students lack understanding of mathematical language and show weakness in basic numerical computation. The students make frequent errors because they misread operation signs when adding or subtracting integers or carry numbers incorrectly when multiplying whole number and decimals. Furthermore, these students have difficulty understanding written or verbal directions or explanations, and find word problems especially difficult to translate. Current Conditions The current data shows that only 15 percent of the students were able to understand and perform the necessary computation with minimal errors on application problems to pass the semester exam with a 70 or above. Thus 85 percent were unsuccessful on the semester exam that focus on computation skills and understanding application word problems. Desired Conditions The optimal goal is to increase the student’s performance from its current state by 200 percent. By increasing the student’s performance, the students should be able to understand, define, and use mathematical terminology to solve difficult application problems without minimal computation errors. Data Collection Processes Discussion of Data Collection Instruments Used In order to determine what problems students had in school and what tools math teachers thought students should emphasize, interviews and focus groups were used due to the speed of receiving the results. Test score data was gathered from the district as it was already mandated by the district and results were already given. Test scores and the data retrieved from the district is meant to be similar to the state assessment that will be given towards the end of the 5th six weeks. Discussion of Sources of Data Surveys and other short interviews were given to the 6th, 7th, and 8th grade math teachers at the middle school campus. It is believed that it is partially due the lack of reviewing their own work is a potential source of the low test scores. Survey question was introduced by creating a baseline of how often teachers believed students should be checking their work. By first understanding this, it would allow a determination if there was in fact a difference between students’ actual reviewing patterns and the actual reviewing patterns. Additionally, an issue with reviewing would be if students are unfamiliar with how to check their work. By determining which skills the teachers deem to be the most productive when practicing their computation, the teachers will then be able to create a vertical alignment where instruction is built on those review skills. This would provide students with a foundation where their knowledge can be increased without the troubles of having to learn a new way to review. Typically the reverse operation would be done in order to check for the correct answer. However, if there is an issue in the basic computation it would hinder students being able to check their work. This was the reason why students were also given survey questions and were interviewed. Students would be asked how often they check their work and they would also identify their self-efficacy in computation of problems with decimals. If there is a need in that students do not check their work and if they do not feel competent in completing the problems with decimals, then it would dictate a need to reteach the material. Surveys and interviews were given to students due to their speed and their ability to quickly assess where a need was. Data Analysis Techniques Used The first survey question asked the students about the percentage of the time they reviewed their work after completing a math problem. The answer choices included: between 0-20 percent, between 20-40 percent, between 40-60 percent, between 60-80 percent, and between 80-100 percent.

Interpersonal Communication Strategies

Interpersonal Communication Strategies There are a lot of thing that are being taught about interpersonal communication in todays society. There are many thing that I have learned that will help you in your relationship as a married couple. Some of the thing that are important in interpersonal communication that will help you better communicate with one another will be discussed here today. There are a lot of skills that are needed to communicate effectively, identifying the barriers to effective interpersonal interactions as well as developing strategies for active, critical and empathic listening. Also according to what is being taught, learning how to evaluate appropriate levels of self-disclosure in relationships and also learning to understand how perceptions, emotions, and nonverbal expression affect interpersonal relationships. Learning strategies for managing interpersonal conflicts, is something that researchers feel could also a help a relationship. Here is some of what I have learnedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Identifying the barriers to effective interpersonal interactions is a very interesting subject as well as a great way to learn how to deal with or look for these barriers. According to Eric Garner, who list seven of the top barriers Its not always easy and often takes a lot of determination. But making an effort to remove the obstacles tangible and intangible that stand in our way, can be the key to building relationships that really work(Garner 2012) With Physical being the first barrier that he listed which mean Communication is generally easier over shorter distances as more communication channels are available and less technology is required. Although modern technology often serves to reduce the impact of physical barriers, the advantages and disadvantages of each communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers, closed office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different status, large worki ng areas or working in one unit that is physically separate from others. The second barrier Eric list is perceptual barriers is where the, The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. If we didnt, we would have no need to communicate: something like extrasensory perception would take its place. The next of the barriers are listed as emotional barriers is where, One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others. Then we have, cultural barriers which means, when we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the behavior patterns of the group. These are the behaviors that the group accepts as signs of belonging. The group rewards such behavior through acts of recognition, approval and inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you and where you are happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interest and a high level of win-win contact. Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of game-playing replaces good communication. Next we have, Language barriers is described as, language that desc ribes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words and jargon. When we couch our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global market place the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language. The sixth barrier is, the gender barrier, this barrier relates to There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the age of three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys. The reason for this lies in the wiring of a mans and womans brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain but in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and in two specific locations. This means that a man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way, features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more freely mixing logic and emotion, features of both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men each day. The last barrier that Eric Garner mentions is, interpersonal barriers, which sates that, There are six levels at which people can distance themselves from one another. These six things are listed as Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both refusals to be in touch and time alone. Rituals are meaningless, repetitive routines devoid of real contact. Pastimes fill up time with others in social but superficial activities. Working activities are those tasks which follow the rules and procedures of contact but no more. Games are subtle, manipulative interactions which are about winning and losing. They include rackets and stamps. Closeness is the aim of interpersonal contact where there is a high level of honesty and acceptance of yourself and others. Working on improving your communications is a broad-brush activity. You have to change your thoughts, your feelings, and your physical connections. That way, you can break down the barriers that get in your way and start b uilding relationships that really work. Learning how to overcome these barriers and communicate with your mate effectively can make a world of different in how well you know your mate as well as how well you all will get along and how long the relationship will last. (Garner E. 2012) Now I will talk to you both about some of the strategies you can use for active, critical and empathic listening. To fully understand what your partner is trying to communicate to you it is really important to comprehend what he or she is saying to you. Now we know that some people like to talk more then others but when trying to communicate with your partner we have to remember to listen to the other person and give them the chance to talk as well. When everyone wants to talk and no one wants to listen it only complicates things and makes people unhappy. Communicating effectively is when you are able to express yourself effectively as well as being able to take time to listen keenly and carefully to what the other person is saying. Some of the strategies that can help you both to be more effective listener are, that when your partner is talking listen carefully and you can be able to repeat what he or she has said. This will help you to remember what the topic was and the kind of in formation that was shared rather it was super important or not so important later. If of you have the habit of forgetting what is discussed, it is important to be writing down the main points which will help you later. Distractions should be avoided in order to increase your ability of developing good listening skills, important communication between the two of you for example when you are budgeting your finances, it is important to switch off the TV phones, radios, or another such gadgets. It is important to listen from the heart which means having empathy towards what your partner is talking about Examine the body language, and lastly when something is not clear ask questions for clearing your understanding. Poor interpersonal communication level is the main cause of many broken marriages or couples seeking for counseling to restore their marriages. The common refrain used by most couples is that he or she no longer understands me. The main focus which couples are required to do is to understand and explore how to communicate to each other and the various problems they might be facing in communication . When you need your commutation to be improved the main aspects which you have to focus are the various communication mechanisms such as presenting honest and direct questions, providing feedback and setting aside time to talk to one another. Having a conflict is not the major issue but the main challenge is how you will be able to handle the conflict which will determine your future. Solving the conflict through the use of effective communication skills and understanding couples with respect leads to you having a happier future and building a stronger relationship. In future as you are confronted with conflicts, these communication skills tips will be effective for you. So keep them in your mind with the aim of having a positive outcome. Many couples think theyre communicating with each other when they sort out who will pick up the kids, pay the bills or call the grandparents, says Orbuch. But thats not the kind of communication shes talking about.(Schoenberg N. 2011) The article Can We Talk, Researcher talks about the role of communication in marriages I believe can really help you both to work on your communication skills with one another in your relationship. The article gives insight in to how couples can work on lea rning more about one another on a more personal level. Conversation partners related use of function words-such as pronouns, articles, conjunctions, prepositions and negations-augurs well for mutual romantic interest and stable relationships, says a team led by graduate student Molly Ireland and psychologist James Pennebaker, both of the University Of Texas At Austin. I find myself agreeing with the two psychologists. I believe that the use of language and grammar really contributes to the type of communication that we engage in our everyday life. The words people use when communicating with other has more meaning then people realize. So far in this class I have learned that it is not just what you rather then how you word things as well as your body language and facial expressions. An interesting irony is that two people who truly hate one another will often exhibit a high amount of language-style matching, Pennebaker says.Two people locked in a bitter fight tend to talk, or yell, in similar ways. Mostly, though, highly attentive conver sation partners like one another. (Bower B. 2012) According to Tim Borchers Self-disclosure is not simply providing information to another person. Instead, scholars define self-disclosure as sharing information with others that they would not normally know or discover. Self-disclosure involves risk and vulnerability on the part of the person sharing the information. Tim also states A useful way of viewing self-disclosure is the Johari window. The Johari window is a way of showing how much information you know about yourself and how much others know about you. The window contains four panes, as shown below. The Open Pane includes information such as hair color, occupation, and physical appearance. The Blind Pane includes information that others can see in you, but you cannot see in your self. You might think you are poor leader, but others think you exhibit strong leadership skills. The Hidden Pane contains information you wish to keep private, such as dreams or ambitions. The Unknown Pane includes everything that you and others do n ot know about yourself. You may have hidden talents, for example, that you have not explored. Through self-disclosure, we open and close panes so that we may become more intimate with others. I believe that using the method that Tim talks about can really help to better the self discloser in you interpersonal relationship. There are also functions and risk that Tim listed that can be helpful to a marriage as new as yours. He states Self-disclosure performs several functions. It is a way of gaining information about another person. We want to be able to predict the thoughts and actions of people we know. Self-disclosure is one way to learn about how another person thinks and feels. Once one person engages in self-disclosure, it is implied that the other person will also disclose personal information. This is known as the norm of reciprocity. Mutual disclosure deepens trust in the relationships and helps both people understand each other more. You also come to feel better about yourself and your relationship when the other person accepts what you tell them. Risks of Self-Disclosure While there are several advantages to self-disclosure, there are also risks. One risk is that the person will not respond favorably to the information. Self-disclosure does not automatically lead to favorable impressions. Anot her risk is that the other person will gain power in the relationship because of the information they possess. Finally, too much self-disclosure or self-disclosure that comes too early in a relationship can damage the relationship. Thus, while self-disclosure is useful, it can also be damaging to a relationship. ( Borchers T. 1999) Now I will give you some information that I have learned about perceptions, emotions, and nonverbal expression affect interpersonal relationships. According to Sole, Perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, and organizing information that comes in through your senses. The perceptual process allows you to become conscious of situations in your environment that might be dangerous or that require your attention, and it is essential to your survival. Most people tend to think that they perceive the world as it really is; however, the truth is that they perceive only a small portion of what they encounter in the outside environment. Everything in the environment that has the potential to be perceived can be defined as a stimulus. These stimuli come to you through your five senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch; you pay attention to some of these stimuli and not to others. You then try to make sense of the stimuli you are aware of or have paid attention to and create your own interpretations and meaning of them. Nonverbal communication is defined as communication of a message without words, which means that it encompasses a wide range of vocal and visual signs and behaviors. Throughout your life, you express thoughts and ideas not only through language but also through your voice, eyes, face, body posture and movement, and hand gestures. Understanding emotions and expressing these emotions appropriately is the key to successful communication with others. People who are aware of their emotions and are sensitive to the emotions of others are better able to handle the ups and downs of life, to rebound from adversity, and to maintain fulfilling relationships with others. As a result, say researchers, they can live more satisfying lives (Matthews, Zeidner, Roberts, 2003). Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that can be learned. We can improve our emotional intelligence by increasing our awareness of emotional issues and improving our ability to identify, assess, and manage our feelings.(So le, 2011) People skills involve a wide range of interpersonal skills including appropriate self-disclosure determining how much personal information to share with others, appropriate assertion skills presenting your ideas and opinions so that they are recognized, collaborative skills working well with others, problem solving skills, and conflict resolution skills. In conclusion I feel that communicating effectively in any relationship especially in a new marriage take time, practice and skill. There are many skills that you can use when trying to better the level of communication in your marriage. These skills include identifying the barriers to effective interpersonal interactions as well as developing strategies for active, critical and empathic listening. Other skills that you both can try and gain a better understanding of are, appropriate levels of self-disclosure in relationships and also learning to understand how perceptions, emotions, and nonverbal expression affect interpersonal relationships. The skill that I feel will help you the most in order to keep you relationship smooth is, Learning strategies for managing interpersonal conflicts. I really hope that this advice and research will help you to have a long and successful marriage. Sincerely Tiffany D. Roberson Reference Page Borchers T., 1999 Moorhead State University Allyn Bacon Retrieved from: http://www.abacon.com/commstudies/interpersonal/indisclosure.html Bower Bruce, Science News 2012 U.S.News World Report LP Retrieved from: http://www.usnews.com/science/articles/2010/11/22/shared-talking-styles-herald-new-and-lasting-romance Garner E. 2012, Seven Barriers to Great Communication Retrieved from: http://www.hodu.com/barriers.shtml Schoenberg N, CHICAGO TRIBUNE February 6, 2011, 2012 Hearst Communications Inc. Retrieved From: http://www.chron.com/life/article/Researcher-talks-about-the-role-of-communication-1690761.php Sole, K. (2011).Making connections: Understanding interpersonal communication. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. retrieved from: https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUCOM200.11.1/sections/glossary?search=interpersonal%20communication#w103694

Stem Cell Research Essay -- Current Events Argument Research Science E

Stem Cell Research Works Cited Not Included Stem cell research is a highly controversial topic that may hold the key to developing a cure for many cancers and diseases. In 1998, a group of scientists developed a technique to isolate and grow stem cells. The field is extremely new when compared with other fields. A few things need to be discussed before an argument can be made for or against stem cell research, the types of stem cells, the potential uses, and where funding should come from. There are many different types of stem cells and each one has a different role in promoting breakthroughs in the many diseases that can possibly be cured. All stem cells, including the embryonic and adult, have three properties in common: unspecialization, proliferation, and differentiation. Stem cells predilection towards being unspecialized entails it cannot do specialized functions like pump blood through the body or carry molecules of oxygen through the bloodstream. The process of replication, or dividing and renewing, for long periods of time is known as proliferation and normally does not occur in muscle, blood, nerve, or other types of cells. Differentiation occurs when internal signals trigger unspecialized stem cells to give rise to specialized cell. The two fundamental types of stem cells are embryonic and adult stem cells. Although the embryonic and adult stem cells have lots in common, they also have some differences, for example, embryonic stem cells can proliferate for a year or more in the laboratory with out differentiating, but most adult stem cells cannot (NIH Basics 1, 3-4). Embryonic stem cells are derived from four to five-day-old in vitro fertilized eggs, never from eggs fertilized in a women's body, d... ...on pro-life. We took something that was going to be destroyed and isolated cells from it that could improve the lives of people suffering from disease and trauma. I don`t know of any scientist who thinks this was a bad idea or that it should not have been done (Doug Melton Releases New Stem Cell Lines, 2)." The possibilities of curing so many diseases by far out ways the "ethical questions" that are easily fixed. Despite the touchy side of the stem cell controversy, that has poised some difficulties for scientists. Many remarkable discoveries have already been made. Stem cells quite possibly could hold a cure for everything from baldness to a variety of cancers to birth defects (NIH basics 1, 2). The limited amount of federal funding is restraining research though. Research on stem cells raises ethical questions as rapidly as it generates new discoveries.

Film Comparison- Shawshank Redemption VS Murder In The First :: essays research papers

COMPARISON Shawshank Redemption and Murder in the First are two eminently engaging films about corrupt prisons and issues such as brutality occurring within the walls. "The Shawshank Redemption" is a compelling film about two imprisoned convicted murderers. Andy Dufresne (Tim Robbins), is innocent, however. Convicted of killing his wife and her lover (a crime for which he clearly had a strong motive), he really "didn't do". Of course, as his jailbird friend "Red" (Morgan Freeman) puts it, "Everybody in here is innocent." Well, Red is "the only guilty man" in Shawshank Prison. As their friendship develops, Andy learns the ropes of prison. Meanwhile, the warden (Bob Gunton) decides that Andy, a well- educated former banker could carry out something more useful than laundry. So, he places Andy as the prison librarian, and later, as his an accountant (he does taxes for all the jail's employees). Andy also assists the warden in money scams (as he tells Red, "I was always an honest man - I had to come to jail to become a crook!") Murder in the First takes a more realistic scenario and engages at a more full on approach. Henri Young (Kevin Bacon), arrived in the prison of Alcatraz after stealing $5 from a food store to feed his young sister. Young's second mistake was an attempted escaped from the inescapable fortress, bringing public humiliation to the sadistic associate warden, Milton Glenn (Gary Oldman). In violation of the federal guidelines that mandate 19-day maximums for solitary confinement, Glenn orders three years of physical torture and isolation in a black dungeon five feet high. No light, no water. The broken, twisted man who emerges three years later immediately murders fellow inmate Rufus McCain, the informer who betrayed him, and is now on trial.Christian Slater portrays the young lawyer assigned to deal with the case as a learning experience, thus not expecting to win it. As the trial goes on, Slater proves to be more than a match. As you can see, both of the films presented good storylines. But it’s the acting, camera techniques and plotting that make them stand apart from each other. While Murder in the first, showing the true story of one who went through the horrible ordeal made a good story, the film didn’t shine as well as Shawshank Redemption as the extra efforts put in such as the originality makes it stand above the rest.

Essay --

Personal Statement My commitment and motivation to pursue master’s in Marriage and Family Therapy is based on the extensive experiences that I have gained in human services in the past 2 years. Since long I have always held the belief that the application of psychological principles has the power to positively impact society. And I especially believe in its power to help children cope with the stresses and events of everyday life. My own life is a testament to this belief. I have been interested in how behavior and thought processes affect lives. When I was fifteen, the demise of my father due to Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) triggered a myriad of questions about this disorder in my mind. And this led me to take a class in psychology in high school, where I was oriented with psychological disorders. I successfully completed my high school with an aggregate of 81%. Keeping with the incipient interest, I had opted for a Bachelors Degree in Applied Psychology at Delhi University. Over a span of three years, this course which was based on rigorous pedagogue exposed me to various aspects of psychology, which included general psychology, statistics, research methods, and clinical psychology to name a few. I have always been a consistent performer right from my school days. This is evident from my under graduation which ultimately lauded me first class degree with 66% (GPA-3.61), standing among the top three out of forty talented students in my course group . The charm of extending the frontiers of knowledge in rapidly growing field of psychology had induced in me an interest to pursue higher studies. To satiate this curiosity and to embark upon a rewarding career in this field, I considered going for post graduate study in Applied Psy... ...ocial functioning of vulnerable populations such as minorities and deprived children and families. Along with counseling and offering supportive services, I would also like to implement various enabling workshops, which will help equip disadvantaged individuals with better skills and develop positive self-esteem and self-responsibilities. I believe graduate work in marriage and family therapy from La Salle University will better train me for the challenges I will be facing in my country. As a student and future professional, I am determined by an ethical obligation to endeavor for excellence in my educational deeds. I look forward to the challenge of developing my past and future learning experiences in an application-based environment. Throughout my college and work experiences, I have developed the discipline necessary to achieve the requirements of this program.

King Lear essay, exploring the notion of hope

In the world of King Lear, being a shakespearean tragedy, suffering, loss, and injustice are all factors often expected before an audience enters the bottomless pit of complicated characters, varying agendas, and Shakespearean english these productions usually employed. However, despite its melancholy undertone and lack of warmer lighting gels on stage, King Lear is not without hope. Shakespeare in Lear, presents the notion that characters in great authority force suffering upon others in an effort to retain power, admiration, and status.Initially, Lear himself demonstrates this, appallingly treating Cordelia with an irrational snap judgement when he is embarrassed in court by his youngest daughters silence and lack of praise; â€Å"Here I disclaim all my parental care. † (1:1:107) This unjust sentence is highly ironic, especially for the audience, as dramatically we see transparent farce of Gonerill and Regan’s dedications of love, and the total truth of Cordeliaâ€⠄¢s.Due to the â€Å"infirmity of his age† (1:1:284) (Lear) the unjust pain Cordelia endures for his mistake is greatened, and due to this dramatic irony the audience is forever hopeful for some form of justice and resolution to come. Hope comes in many forms in King Lear, and at first arrives in the character of Kent. Like the audience, Kent is able to see the mistaken ways of Lear, and is the first to step in and address Cordelia’s suffering. â€Å"See better, Lear†¦ Thy youngest daughter does not love thee least.† (1:1:146-153)In one dramatic interpretation of the play, Kent is positioned between Lear and Cordelia, symbolizing perhaps, a link between the mistaken mind of an old King, and the â€Å"more ponderous† (1:1:73) love of a young heir, furthermore acting asâ€Å"the true blank of thine eye† (1:1:153) for his decrepit King. Kent brings the hope for justice to a tantalizingly close reality, however through Lear’s blind desire f or admiration and respect of status, the audience is left with a even greater sense of bathos, and desire for resolution, when yet again our hopes our berried by more pain and disappointment.This again portrays the notion that authority and all that follows leads to the lower statured characters enduring unjust suffering, and that â€Å"nothing comes from nothing† (1:1:85) linking back to the notion that suffering cant come from nothing. Hope can also presented in King Lear, in the way in which directors stage the characters on set. In one dramatic interpretation of the play, in act 1 scene 1, Lear is sat down solitary with Gonerill and Regan at his side. This not only portrays the Kings increasing age, but also the manipulative power Gonerill and Regan initially have over him.During this first scene we see the gap between Cordelia and Lear increase progressively, again portraying a physical representation for their relationship and love for one another growing further and fu rther apart. After this distancing, Cordelia, positioned front stage right, has both Kent, The Fool, and towards the end of the scene, France. The dramatic effect of this is clear to the audience; it physically highlights the allegiances of the characters, and is used also to portray other various notions in a more physical manner, one of which is hope.Hope is presented in the way in which The Fool, Kent, and France side with Cordelia, implying to the audience she is not alone in her banishment, and that perhaps these characters may have a role in returning Cordelia later in the play. This idea is further backed up in act 1 scene 5 upon where we see The Fool speak the truth to the king; â€Å"Thou shouldst not have been old till thou hadst been wise† (1:5:36) presenting hope in that the king might listen.The allegiances formed in this scene contrast one another, clearly demonstrating to the audience their various agendas, and allows the audience to understand the alliances of characters without any dialogue required. Following on from this notion of unspoken alliances, characters relationships inspire hope in the audience as well. While Lear is initially the main spark of suffering for the other characters, and despite the fact that his own suffering is self inflicted, the audience does sympathize for his position amongst the rest.The â€Å"infirmity of his age† (1:1:284) results in his malicious, self satisfying, daughters manipulating him with ease, and abusing the power he entrusts onto them. But in the same way we see Kent step in for Cordelia, we see him return to aid Lear at this stage in the play as well. The strength of there relationship is seen in Kent’s unfaltering loyalty for his King: â€Å"If thou canst serve where thou dost stand condemned, so may it come thy master, whom thou lov’st, shall find thee full of labours. † (1:4:6) and as a result does instill hope into the hearts of the audience that Kent may in fa ct put things right.Suffering comes in many forms during King Lear, however despite the darkly lit stage, black costumes of the characters, and general tragic story Lear follows – hope is always a present emotion amongst the audience. Dramatic irony, stage setting, character relationships and proxemics are all dramatic devices employed by the director of one particular dramatic interpretation of the play. They contrast the darker elements of Lear and without them, the play would loose the very key to its brilliance.That key, that unlocks the particularly controversial entertainment value, being hope within the audience. Without the subtle hope shakespeare and modern directors try and install into the very weave of King Lear, the audience would find themselves simply enduring this seemingly deepening pit of death, despair, and disappointment. This is why I am able to conclude that by considering a few of the dramatic effects used in King Lear, despite the ever present tone of suffering, hope is always ingrained within the audience. Forever seeking resolution to the slope on which they travel down.

The Flowering Response of the Rice Plant to Photoperiod

The bloom repartee of the sift Plant to Photo finish A REVIEW OF THE books FOURTH EDITION 1985 Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines Mail ph cardinal P. O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines THE INTERNATIONAL RICE look into INSTITUTE First printing 1969 part revised 1972 Revised 1976 Revised 1985 The beingness astray sift look Institute (IRRI) was pure(a) in 1960 by the Ford and Rockfeller Foundations with the financial aid and approval of the G e actuallyplacenment of the Philippines. To solar sidereal intend solar mean solar daylightlightlight straighten bulge come out of the closet IRRI is iodin of the 13 nonprofit international explore and training centers supported by the consultatory Group for supranational Agricultural look (CGIAR).The CGIAR is sponso cherry- expiration by the Food and Agriculture system (FAO) of the join Nations, the International Bank for reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development course (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of 50 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private rigations. IRRI receives support, through the CGIAR, from a chip of donors including the Asian Development Bank, the European scotch Community, the Ford Foundation, the International Development ResearchCentre, the International Fund for Agricultural Development, the OPEC particular Fund, the Rockefeller Foundation, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank, and the international aid magic spellncies of the fol unhopefuling governments Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Federal commonwealth of Ger umpteen a(prenominal), India, Italy, japan, Mexico, Nether records, New Zealand, Norway, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States. The responsibility for this publication rests with the International sift Research Institute. Copyright International sift Research Institute 1986 All rights reserved. provided for quotatio ns of in condensed pass come a capaciouss for the purpose of criticism and analyze, no part of this publication whitethorn be reproduced, sto going in retrieval systems, or transmit in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or new(prenominal)wise, without anterior permission of IRRI. This permission go away non be unreasonably withheld for mapping for uncommercialised purposes. IRRI does non take aim payment for the noncommercial riding habit of its published figures, and hopes that this copyright settlement will non diminish the bona fide mathematical function of its seek nameings in agricultural research and exploitation.The designations employed and the fork upation of the hooey in this publication do non int destruction the expression of any opinion any(prenominal) on the part of IRRI concerning the legal term of any country, territory, city, or argona, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its fron tiers or boundaries. ISBN 971-104-151-0 CONTENTS prolusion Introduction 1 strain as a Short-day Plant 1 maturement ar persists 2 Basic Vegetative Phase 4 Photo finish-Sensitive Phase 5 Photoinducive Cycles 7 Reception of the Photo destiny assignic Stimulus and Translocation 9 neat Intensity and Quality 9 rift of the Dark Period 11 age from Photoinductive Treatment to F n 1ing 12 biochemical Changes During Photoinduction 12 nub of Temperature on the F take d proclaiming Response to Photoperiod 13 Measurements and Methods of Testing Photoperiod ut n earliest culture mediumness 14 Date-of-Planting Experiments 15 environmental science and Photoperiodism 17 Terminology Used in Describing Photoperiod esthesia 20 Inheritance of Vegetative fruit Duration 23 Problems in the subscribe to of the strain Plant? fs Photoperiodism 25 abridgment 26 Appendix 28 Bibliography 38 Foreword This analyze, first of all published in 1969, has been an all important(p) extension phone in appreciation the sieve constitute.It has had a hand whatsoever still continuing demand. Many new reports on the rash answerion of the sift whole kit and caboodle be call for been published since the first edition. to a great extent than gunpoint centigrade publications were include in the wiz-third edition this edition includes anformer(a) 103 publications. For comforter of reading, gos sustain been utilize to p arnt the references. This review was prepargond with the cooperation of the IRRI Library module and the technical assistance of Mr. Romeo M. Visperas, and edited by Ms. Emerita P. Cervantes. M. S. Swaminathan Director General IntroductionPhotoperiod influences roughly(prenominal) aspects of determine emersion. s irrigateyly of its payoffs on strains feed been reviewed by shell (24), Gwinner (111), Katayama (192), Morinaga (316), Sircar (439), and Wagenaar (534). This review is primarily concerned with the depression of photoperiod on the skin rash of the strain launch. It includes to a greater extent than than d papers on the photoperiodism of sieve, al approximately of which be avail competent at the International Rice Research Institute library. Several contri exactlyions in Japanese postulate been trans lated into English and as closely as atomic follow 18 accessible at the International Rice Research Institute library.A bibliography is apt(p) at the end of this review non all papers listed were cited in this review hardly were neverthe slight included as future references for interested workers. Rice as a condensed-day flora Rice is fond to photoperiod . across-the-board-day pr individuallyings back end pr so fart or considerably hamper its develop. Rice cultivars expose a wide set forth of fun in their degree of esthesia to photoperiod (87, 254, 319, 357, 531, 563). record 1 enters these variations, ranging from the precise pure to the most in thin. 1. Response edit ou ts of collar representative graphic symbols of sift cultivars. 2 The efflorescence repartee of the sift kit and caboodle to photoperiod nearly of the wild species of genus Oryza and many of the primitive cultivated strains ( O. sativa L. ) atomic number 18 photoperiod reasonable and whitethorn be sort advertisement as piteous-day ingrafts. close papers bind on such(prenominal)(prenominal) a compartmentalisation, and and so in this review, sieve will be considered as a short-day congeal. It withal will be classified into photoperiod- fine and photoperiod- unsusceptible types, the latter(prenominal) present a impoverished receipt or a comminuted match in prime with an append in photoperiod. The present tendency is to select photoperiod-in slight cultivars so that most of the cultivated sieves whitethorn eventually be hanker photoperiod-insensitive unmatchables.These improved, to begin withhand(predicate) maturing cultivars whitethorn fit into the two fold naturaliseping system characteristic of progressive agriculture. on that blossom wear been reports of cultivars whose peak is s minuscule by short-day intercessions and hence argon considered large-day forms (1, 98, 99, 239, 254, 276, 277, 279, 283, 284, 287, 291, 303, 398,443,444, 488). Heenati, for instance, is often referred to in the literature as a farsighted-day countersink (1). Short photoperiods score frust prescribeed its florescence by 10 d, besides this clutches is comparatively short and whitethorn be the result of nonphotoperiodic factors, such as pitiful free posture or relatively naughtyschool temperature.The delay ca aim by short-day treatments investd from 7 to 12 d in the Charnock and Panbira cultivars exploitation an 8-h photoperiod (443), nigh 9 d in B. 76 (303), and 13 d in T. N. 32 and T. A. 64 (287). Many of the inform keen-sighted-day and intermediate cultivars were found to be short-day cultivars in subsequent interrogatory (522). The app bent long-day reply of Heenati resulted from developing photoperiods shorter than the best, which delay bloom (34). just about sifts may wee got been classified as long-day lay outs beca practice in seemly facilities were utilize in interrogation the photoperiod solution.The disgorge of photoperiods employ has been trammel, ordinarily involving wholly two treatments. In just about instances, the assortment was ground on field of view reaction to diverse give involutions (98). Short-day-treated plants were often comp ard with plants liberal chthonic inseparable day aloofnesss (291, 303, 304). The battle and changes in temperature and the photoperiods used welcome make it unmanageable to interpret the info intelligently. As will be discussed later onward, many photoperiod chemical reaction curves show that photoperiods weeklong or shorter than the optimal delay the flush of photoperiod-sensitive cultivars (34, 513).Photoperiod r eaction protests markedly among strains this alike explains the diversity of the results report on the photoperiodism of the sieve plant (see Appendix). However, much than four hundred cultivars buzz off been detailedly tested at IRRI (l59, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170), and not iodine so far-off has shown a long-day response. offshoot bods The exploitation of the sift plant do-nothing be change integrity into three set ups 1) the vegetal fruit mannequin, from germination to panicle grounding 2) the reproductive physical body, from panicle creation to peak and 3) the mature conformation, from rash to effective developing of grain.In the tropics, the reproductive phase is about(predicate) 35 d while the ripening phase ranges from 30 to 35 d. both phases are relatively constant, although crushed temperatures ache been cognize to prolong them and high The florescence response of the sift plant to photoperiod 3 temperatures to trend them. The ripening phase may be prolonged to as much as 60 d. However, it is the vegetative issue phase whose distance generally varies greatly and which largely determines the evolution age of a cultivar, specially in the tropics.The vegetative reaping phase bear be and divided into the basic vegetative phase (BVP) and the photoperiod-sensitive phase (PSP). The BVP refers to the juvenile offshoot portray of the plant, which is not affected by photoperiod. It is single by and by the BVP has been completed that the plant is able to show its response to the photoperiodic comment for blossom . this is the PSP of the plant. figure 2 shows the harvest- clock phases and the ordinary response of a photoperiodsensitive sift and a photoperiod-insensitive rice.Based on the BVP and PSP, varietal response to photoperiod net be classified into four types as shown in Figure 3 (105, 526). 2. ingathering phases and typical responses of a photoperiod-sensitive rice and a ph otoperiod-insensitive rice. BVP = basic vegetative phase, PSP = photoperiod-sensitive phase. 3. Four types of varietal response to photoperiod. BVP = basic vegetative phase, PSP = photoperiodsensitive phase. 4 The inflorescence response of the rice plant to photoperiod The BVP and PSP are two separable suppuration phases hold inled by distinct genes.Although roughly tropical cultivars may be classified as the D type having both long BVP and long PSP, most were in all likelihood eliminated during domestication since they would bring forth had an un ordinarily long harvest period and could be im pose scarcely indoors a narrow range of learns. much(prenominal) cultivars were found in Bangladesh and are cognize as Rayadas (105). The four types shown in Figure 3 were classified at a dispirit place one temperature condition. Norin 20 (Type A) has a short BVP. When bragging(a) in the tropics, however, it has a much shorter BVP than when big(a) in the temperate landing fields (Fig. 1).In classifying cultivars base on BVP, most of those from the low line of analogues were found to devour long BVP? fs (531, 532). Basic vegetative phase At the early harvest-festival faces, the rice plant is photoperiod insensitive so that the photoinductive treatments are ordinarily started when the plants are 10-63 d old (13, 90, 142, 175, 186, 213, 230, 232, 273, 304, 316, 401, 512, 531). Because of this in predisposition to photoperiod, the early produce face has been termed the basic vegetative phase it is similarly referred to as the juvenile offshoot pointedness of the insensitive phase of the plant.Suenaga recognised the BVP as early as 1936. He mensurable it by taking the flavor of the vegetative ripening phase at optimal day space. The BVP also has been calculated by subtracting 35 d from the development while (sowing to florescence) of plants liberal at the optimal photoperiod (526). This assumes that the period from panicle origin to anthesising is about 35 d. Anema (13) modified the determination of the BVP by subtracting 35 d and the stripped recite of photoinductive cycles necessary for panicle introduction from the mien escort.The resulting BVP value are modester plainly this multiform method would mean determine the negligible subprogram of photoinductive cycles needed for each(prenominal) cultivar. The range of BVP report in the literature has deepen from 10 to 85 d (105, 175, 266, 273, 326, 381, 383, 401, 407, 445, 512). In an F 2 population, BVP? fs of more than than 100 d were report (249), except a BVP of this aloofness has not been found in conventional rice cultivars. It is practical that such characters are eliminated during cultivar selection. The appendix shows the range of the BVP of the cultivars tested at IRRI.The indica cultivars generally beat durable BVP (583). Other workers dumbfound account or surveyd BVP in imp aeratement of page matter government issue (9 3, 215, 340, 413, 551, 575). The stripped numerate of disappears bunghole be less than five. The need for find the BVP of a rice cultivar forward utilise it as an experimental plant material is distinct merely is frequently overlook especially in the study of the inheritance of photoperiod sensibility. Several experiments showed that short-day treatments of seedlings promoted heading (393, 401, 437, 438, 445) or delayed it (16, 273, 284, 287, 296, 426, 443, 447, 551).The results evoke the assertable belief of photoperiod while the plant is in its early maturation stage and the come-at-able human race of a very short BVP. On the other hand, long-day treatments of seedlings withdraw been report to provoke earliness in anthesis (418, 427). These varied and distant results may have been caused by nonspecific factors. A good example is seedling vigor, which is The f lighting response of the rice plant to photoperiod 5 cognize to affect the heyday date, especial ly in the rickety photoperiod-sensitive cultivars.The degree of sensibility of rice plants has been inform to affix with age (142, 190, 195, 202, 205, 347, 512). The increase in undulate compass accompanying advancement in age does not explain this increase in sensibility (413). An increase in sensitiveness with age up to 28 d and then a abate in sensitiveness with older plants (35- to 42-d-old plants) has been inform (296). The delay probably resulted from the setback from delayed organ transplant and not from plant age because the plants were already 63 d old when trans ingrained, with close to already flower.The optimal age of responsiveness is probably the result of growthlimiting factors, such as space and nutrients and delayed trans lay. Katayama (202) indicated that the BVP, or senescence impression, probably resulted from small leaf theatre of operations and (or) low metabolic activity and (or) escape of a specific metabolic aim in schoolgirlish plants. The substance create response to short-day conditions is produced in withal small a quantity to affect morphogenesis at the suppuration point, but increases gradually with change magnitude age.Studying this aspect, Suge (460) found that the growth inhibitors in the plant were greatly cut back as the plant grew. However, it is not known whether these restrictive substances are essentially rentd in the esthesia of the plant to photoperiod. In some instances, the apparent low esthesia of the jr. plants may be a depicted object of completing the BVP. If the photoinductive cycles were precondition sooner the BVP of the plants had been completed, the sound photoinductive cycles would be less and the resulting response of the plants would be smaller.The transition from the BVP to the PSP is not well known it could be abrupt or it could involve a gradual buildup. employ some(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) cultivars, surpass (26) found that the insensitive phase (BVP) ch anged to the fully sensitive phase (PSP) inside a week. The following are possible explanations for the earthly concern of the BVP (26) 1) The first leaves organise are completely insensitive to photoperiod. 2) The first leaves form have very low sensitivity that they do not reach an adequate direct of induction to evoke blossom mental home out front the more sensitive leaves formed at high nodes have reached this stage. ) The first leaves formed do not attain the haved stage in the lead the (early) senescence of these leaves. 4) The total leaf area unavoidable before the plant whoremonger react by floral inception to the inductive photoperiod is so large that it is reached yet at a relatively late stage of plant development. 5) The outgrowth point of the young plant is unable to react to the floral input signal or the input signal preservenot reach the ontogenesis point. Photoperiod-sensitive phase The PSP or the eliminable phase (186) is the growth stage implic ative of the rice plants sensitivity to photoperiod.In photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, the PSP determines the rice plant? fs sensitivity. The PSP of photoperiod-insensitive cultivars ranges from 0 to 30 d while that of sensitive cultivars lasts from 31 d or endless. chthonic continually long photoperiods, 6 The skin rash response of the rice plant to photoperiod some cultivars have been report to re principal(prenominal) vegetative even after 12 yr of growth (234). The PSP is normally indomitable by subtracting the minimum growth continuance from the maximum growth while of a cultivar (526).Because many cultivars remain vegetative for a long period if great(p) chthonic long-day conditions, experiments are comm besides ended after two hundred d and the PSP of the cultivar is given the value of 200+. Besides touchstone the PSP, at that place are many other ways . to be discussed later . of determining a cultivar? fs sensitivity to photoperiod. A rice cultivar? fs respon se to photoperiod may be thrifty by the continuance of the PSP, which in unfreeze is determined by both the fine and best photoperiods of the cultivar.Because these two ground have been used interchangeably and in many ways, the following definitions will be choose herein. Optimum photoperiod is the day era at which the continuation from sowing to efflorescence is at a minimum (34). minute photoperiod is the longest photoperiod at which the plant will flower or the photoperiod beyond which it cannot flower. Figure 1 shows that BPI-76 has an optimum photoperiod of 10 h and a comminuted photoperiod of 13 h. Tainan 3 has an optimum photoperiod of 12 h but no fine photoperiod because it flowered chthonic all photoperiods.The searing photoperiod determines whether a cultivar will flower when planted at the usual condemnation at a accepted latitude, while the optimum photoperiod determines whether it will flower within a reasonable time of year if planted during a period with seven-day geezerhood than would usually croak during the growing period. With BPI-76, if the optimum photoperiod is 10 h and the delay under photoperiods longer than 10 h is great, one would search the flowering of this cultivar to be greatly delayed when planted in the Federal latitudes where the photoperiod during the growing appease is about 14 h.If the lively photoperiod is 12 h, flowering will occur very late at high latitudes, and if flowering does occur, the crop will not mature in time because cover will kill it. A cultivar with a long optimum photoperiod or no minute photoperiod would have wider adaptability . it could be planted at any latitude and in any lenify, provided it is not too sensitive to temperature. Optimum photoperiod The optimum photoperiod differs with cultivars although many workers have discovered it to be 8-10 h (39, 116, 135, 142, 311, 362, 371, 393, 512). Using intermediate photoperiods of less than and more than 10 h may reveal more important information. exclusively this will require facilities in which a maximum of 15-min variance in photoperiods can be accurately obtained. There are in addition indications that the optimum photoperiod increases with increase in temperature Njoku (335) did not find any optimum photoperiod in the varieties he analyze. The photoperiod he used was as short as 9 h, well below the range of ingrained day lengths. Cultivars with optimum photoperiods longer than 10 h have also been describe (26, 90, 320, 322, 362, 568). The less sensitivity to photoperiod, the longer is the (394). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 7 ptimum photoperiod (116, 311). However, others found no correlation amid the optimum photoperiod and the photoperiod sensitivity of the many cultivars they tested (572). A photoperiod longer or shorter than the optimum has been shown to delay flowering, the delay depending upon the cultivar? fs sensitivity (311, 316, 319, 371, 393, 459, 5 13, 568). The term supraoptimum photoperiod has been used when the photoperiod is shorter than the optimum. Panicle initiation in plants receiving a photoperiod as low as 4 h has been reported (140). No flowering has resulted under a 2-h mail period (140).Plants receiving 8-h fire up and vary Acheronian periods from 16 to 64 h showed hold in shoot flush conversion (219). This was ascribed to inadequacy of carbon compounds for synthesis of requisite quantity of flowering hormone. The crook point mentioned by Yu and Yao (568) is similar to the optimum photoperiod, but the photoperiod set they reported were large because these were not the photoperiods at which growth is shortest but the photoperiods at which the first long-day magnetic core is manifested. Critical photoperiod Scripchinsky (417), reviewing the literature on rice, indicated that the rice plants have a ? captious length of day for flowering.? h Later studies showed the presence of a tiny photoperiod ranging fro m 12 to 14 h (175, 209, 244, 354, 478, 490, vitamin D, 553). The critical photoperiods determined under softenled photoperiod board were almost the homogeneous as the day length from sunrise to sunset at 30 d before flowering under natural conditions (499). The lower the latitude of origin of a cultivar or strain, the shorter is its critical photoperiod (196, 356). The critical period is influenced by temperature (566) and lengthens as the plant becomes older (2 12).The PSP of a cultivar is probably a measure of the combined final result of photoperiod on its optimum photoperiod and critical photoperiod. The shorter the critical photoperiod, the longer is the PSP. Short optimum photoperiod is also associated with long PSP. Photoinductive cycles A photoperiodic cycle that hauls the initiation of flowers on plants is called a photoinductive cycle. A 10-h photoperiod change with a 14-h risque period is one possible photoinductive cycle of a short-day rice cultivar. The minimum number of photoinductive cycles undeniable to invest the panicle anlage of a rice plant varies from 4 to 24.This required minimum number varies not only with cultivar, but also with the photoperiod being used (13, 21, 26, 142, 195, 292, 338, 344, 408, 449, 500, 527, 529). The number of photoinductive cycles necessary increases with photoperiod length (190, 195, 203, 204, 527). According to Katayama (190), the minimum number increases relatively with the photoperiod used, although others (527) failed to obtain a proportional increase using a distinct cultivar. Katayama (190) found that the minimum number was lower in cultivars from higher latitudes than in those from lower latitudes. The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Suge (463) showed that contrastive numbers of photoinductive cycles produced opposite amounts of floral input signal. He also found that Gibberellin A3 reduced the minimum number of photoinductive cycles necessary to induce flowering. However , gibberellin alone did not induce flowering under noninductive photoperiods. That a certain(a) number of photoinductive cycles is required to induce flowering suggests that the stimulus produced by the treatment is cumulative and that flower induction occurs when the stimulus has reached a certain threshold level (205, 206, 208).Photoinductive cycles interrupted by noninductive cycles can negate to contrastive degrees the result of the photoinductive cycles (200, 206, 345). There are also indications that offset of the panicle from the flag leaf good example is a process separate from panicle initiation. For example, internode reference, after the panicle has been initiated, outlet more rapidly at shorter than at longer photoperiods (26, 37, 67, 135, 425, 451, 512, 529), and earliness is further induced if the treatment is prolonged until flowering (33, 438, 498).It is possible, however, that panicle initiation and exsertion are separate processes, but certainly the latter p roceeds only after the panicle has been formed. The return of photoperiod on exsertion may be on fuller development of the panicle, hence indirectly affecting elongation of the first internode or exsertion of the panicle. Plants subjected to insufficient photoinductive cycles some generation form panicles but no outlet occurs (see confuse 1) (92, 122, 344, 512, 526). A departure of two photoinductive cycles could make the remnant between exsertion or nonexsertion of the panicle.Several workers, however, have reported that photoperiod has only a s well-heeled takings on culm elongation and panicle issuence (85, 116, 338, 473) but the cultivars used (85, 338, 473) were generally wobbly photoperiodic because the differences between the control and the treated plants were relatively small (16 d at most). In another(prenominal) instance, the treatment was started at a later stage . 20 d before the archetype heading time . at which time the plants had legitimate sufficient photo periodic stimulus for panicle initiation and come outnce (1 16).In another experiment, long photoperiods had no make on the lowest bud that had reached the stage of differentiation of secondary branch primordia (345). Reversals from a reproductive to a vegetative phase have been reported (54, 342). In some instances, however, the panicle is initiated and differentiated but Table 1. Response of 30-d-old BPI-76 seedlings given different numbers of 10-h photoinductive cycles. old age from sowing eld from sowing Cycles (no. ) to panicle to panicle initiation emergence 8 ** 10 47 ** 12 47 88 Continuous 46 66 *No panicle initiation 200 d after treament. **No panicle meregence 200 d after treament * The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 9 does not emerge (526). The unexserted panicle ceases to grow, and instead the terminal growth is prevail by a shoot from a node below the panicle. such a situation is not a unfeigned reversal of the growing point. In more recent h istological studies, incomplete short-day treatment changed the bract anlage into a leaf primordium, a true reversal of some split of the growing point (346). Reception of the photoperiodic stimulus and translocation The photoperiodic stimulus may be received by the leaves of the rice plant (24).The leaf sheaths can receive the stimulus as shown by removing the leaf blades and subjecting the plant to photoinductive treatments (26, 142, 481). much photoinductive cycles were needed to induce flowering when the leaf blades were removed (142). Defoliated plants responded to unhorse to-do given during off-key periods as well as the intact plants (142). In one cultivar, the culm received the photoperiodid stimulus (26). Evidently, the leaf most receptive to the stimulus is the youngest fully formed leaf (263). The first leaves, up to the 6th leaf, are either insensitive or have low sensitivity to photoperiod (26).It is difficult to study this aspect of leaf sensitivity because graf ting experiments with the rice plant are difficult. Removing the leaves at regular intervals after the end of the photoinductive cycles showed that the floral stimulus moves gradually from the leaves to the terminal bud (142, 464). The translocation of the stimulus depends on temperature. It was also reported that the rate of translocation of the stimulus is the equivalent unheeding of the number of photoinductive cycles received by the plant (463). The question of stimulus causa from one cultivator to another has also attracted the attention of some(prenominal) workers.When a plant was divided and half was kept under a 24-h photoperiod and the other half under an 8-h photoperiod, the half subjected to the short-day treatment flowered while that under long-day treatment remained vegetative (230, 232). The results indicate that the stimulus is not transmitted from one tiller to another. This finding has been substantiated by other workers using different cultivars and methods (26 3, 408, 521). Manuel and Velasco (263) concluded that the stimulus that induces flowering can be conserve in the stubble and later transferred to the ratoon but not to a neighboring tiller of the same age as the donor.Sasamura (413), however, reported that the floral stimulus goes from the main culm to its tillers. The irregularities observed in photoperiod-sensitive cultivars when planted during the off-season, for example, the high number of nonflowering tillers, have been attributed to the effect of the photoinductive cycles received by the plant and their nontranslocation to the succeeding tillers formed (521). crystalise intensity and quality The uncontaminating intensities used to delay or delay flowering varied from 1 to more than 200 lx. Incandescent, tungsten, as well as fluorescent fixture bulbs have been used (69, 143, 310, 396, 484, 489, 503, 538, 565, 570, 577).The brighter the nimblenessing, the stronger the retarding effect. 10 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod hold water in flowering with ignite intensities alter from 10 to 100 lx and even at 1 lx (310, 484) has been reported (538, 565, 589). Extending the day length using clear intensities of less than 200 lx during the first or last 3 h of the 12-h injustice period did not prevent flowering (478). In another experiment, 2-h illumination at 15 lx before a 9-h downhearted period showed some inhibiting effect and 1-h illumination at 500 lx incandescent elucidate before a 9-h juicy period subdue flowering (143).In correlating laboratory studies with field studies, the natural photoperiod used is usually establish on the sunrise-to-sunset period. Such beats are unsatisfying in assessing periods of effective light because very low light intensities have been known to effect photoperiod responses in some experiments. well-bred drop in the morning can generally delay flowering but polite tumble in the even out may or may not delay flowering (143, 196, 205, 502). Civil capitulation ends when the light intensity is about 4 lx. Twilight, of course, varies with localities and within the year.The critical light that results in delayed flowering is around 5 lx and sometimes 10 lx, depending on variety and other factors (174). Twilight intensity also varies and may be higher in the morning than in the good afternoon (Fig. 4). Katayama (196) attributes the greater effectiveness of the morning twilight to higher intensity. Cloudy stick out affects twilight duration. Takimoto and Ikeda (478), however, concluded that the photoperiodically effective day length is equal to the astronomical day length (sunrise to sunset) because twilight (less than 200 lx) had smaller effect on photoperiodic induction in their experiment.Wormer (538) showed that low light intensities for 6 h (10-100 lx) given after a 12-h daylight can delay flowering. Farmers have complained that their rice plants did not flower regularly because of the electric lights installe d on their fields (552). One incident has been reported in which the light from a fervour of waste natural gas prevented popular 4. Change of light intensity during civil twilight (after Katayama 196). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 11 flowering in rice. The effect of light was noticeable up to about 270 m from the flare (22).Although light from incandescent bulbs is generally used for photoperiod studies, other colors have been tried in rice. The blue-violet part of the spectrum has been shown to retard flowering (260) as has infrared light (323). The delay in flowering caused by green light is very slight, only 4-5 d later than natural day length (234). colour has, thereof, been used in light traps for the moth. red ink light is the most effective in delaying flowering, while blue showed some effect only at high intensities and in the most photoperiod-sensitive cultivars (26, 146, 153, 503).The phytochrome rouge is generally regarded as the system t hat interacts with photoperiod or with different light qualities, such as red, far-red, and blue. Such pigment has been analyze in rice coleoptile by Pjon and Furuya (378, 379). For panicle initiation, rice needs a high light intensity during the light period. The crushing caused by low-intensity light during the light period can be overcome effectively by exposing the plant to high-intensity light at a time before or after the inductive dark period (140, 145).This phenomenon is similar to that reported in other short-day plants and is evidently a carbohydrate need. This requirement would explain wherefore a 2-h light period followed by 22-h dark period did not induce flowering (140). Ikeda (145) reported, however, that plants growing in low-intensity light during the photoinductive period but briefly unresolved to high-intensity light before the inductive dark period had floral induction, suggesting that light requirement for floral induction of rice is not entirely concerned with photosynthesis.In the flowering response of the rice cultivars to photoperiod, red light given during the dark period inhibited flowering (136, 146, 148, 411, 442). The effect of red light increased with intensity. Red light, as low as 10 ? EW/cm 2 given for 3 h or 290 ? EWc/cm 2 for 15 min in the middle of the dark period, inhibited flowering (146, 148, 149). Red light was most effective in inhibiting panicle initiation when given in the middle of the dark period (150). With red light, the period of motion-picture show needed to inhibit floral development was shorter than with white light (146).The inhibiting effect of red light has also been shown in experiments involving red and far-red lights. Far-red after red nullifies the delaying effect of red light and promotes flowering (411). Far-red before a 9- or 10-h dark period promotes flowering and this effect can be reversed by red light (146, 149, 152). Far-red enhances flowering whereas blue retards flowering (185). Far-r ed after the critical dark period can shorten the critical dark period as well as reduce the minimum number of inductive cycles required (145). intermission of the dark periodSensitive strains of rice respond to light interruption (26, 69, 218, 232, 260, 323, 449, 570, 577). stir up given in the middle of the dark period delayed the flowering of the sensitive cultivar Shuan-chiang (570). The light intensity used was 1001x and the duration varied from a flash to as long as 15 min. The degree of delay was greater in the light interruption of a 12-h dark period (12 light and 12 dark) than of a 16-h dark period (8 light and 16 dark) (577). Interrupting the light period with darkness did not accelerate flowering. 12 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiodThe originally the interposition of the light during the dark period, the greater was the delay (449). The findings show that the flowering response of the plant is determined by the longest dark period. Days from phot oinductive treatment to flowering The literature indicates that the number of geezerhood from panicle initiation to flowering is about 35. Many workers have reported that the difference among cultivars is small (7, 407, 511, 551). Others found that the number of eld from panicle initiation to flowering ranges from 10 to 241 d (425).It seems obvious, however, that 10 d is too short for the full development of a panicle. florescence may be delayed by long photoperiods after panicle initiation (176, 524). But if the plants are given photoinductive cycles beyond the minimum requirement, the subsequent photoperiods have very little effect on flowering and elongation (501, 524). Auxin application can nullify the delaying effect of long photoperiods (176). Under natural day length, the number of long time from the first-bract differentiation stage to flowering varied from 27 to 46 d, depending upon the cultivar and time of sowing (14, 270).Reports vary on the number of days from the st art of the photoinductive treatment to flowering. Misra (285) reported 37 d in 30-, 40-, 50-, 60-, and 70-d-old plants of the cultivar T. 36 using a 10-h photoperiod. Fuke (93) noted that the plants flowered about 28 d after treatment. The number of days from photoinductive treatment to flowering depends upon the photoperiod being used. Panicle initiation and flowering were earlier under the 10-h than under the 11- and 12-h photoperiods (527). Using 168 F 2 plants, those treated under the 10-h photoperiod took 30-47 d to flower, or a mean of 35. d (Li, unpublished data. For practical purposes, an estimate of 35 d should be workable. Thus, to obtain the BVP or the time of panicle initiation, 35 d can be subtracted from the minimum growth duration of the cultivar. In studying the effect of photoperiod on the flowering of the rice plant, the most thoroughgoing consideration is panicle initiation because it marks the true(a) change from the vegetative to the reproductive phase. kinda of using this as a basis, however, most studies use the flowering date, which is only a projection of the variations of the date of panicle initiation.To a certain extent, several factors can affect the stage from panicle initiation to emergence. In some instances, panicle initiation can occur without the subsequent emergence. The panicle primordium is aborted and a vegetative shoot may dominate the growing tip (527). A methodological question qualification therefore arise regarding accuracy of the experiments found on flowering date. The practicality of the method, however, far outweighs the need for essential accuracy. Biochemical changes during photoinduction Very little work has been done on the chemical changes occurring during photoinduction and panicle development in rice.An increase in the rate of ventilation system of rice shoot apices with each photoinductive cycle given to the eighth The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 13 day, followed by a gradua l go under in rate, has been reported (293). The peak of the respiration rate almost coincides with the minimum photoinductive cycles needed by the rice plant at 8 h of photoperiod. The results suggest that the photoperiodic mechanics in the flowering of rice involves a respiratory shift. This corroborates the findings of Elliot and Leopold (86) who used other plant species.The changes in carbohydrate and newton case of rice plants subjected to short days were also studied by Misra and Mishra (299). Unfortunately, the difference in heading between treated and control plants was only 4 d. Khan and Misra (222) reported an increase in sugar and nitrogen content of the leaves when subjected to photoinductive cycles. Photoinduction increases the gibberellic acid activity, although the value is low (461). This immediate rice, visible after three photoinductive cycles, returns to a level lower than that of the original. The rice plant is difficult to use for studies on biochemical chang es during reproduction.Perhaps it is best to leave this type of study to other short-day plants. Effect of temperature on the flowering response to photoperiod The flowering of the rice plant is mainly controlled by two ecological factors . day length and temperature . which are often inter relate. The plant may respond to temperature and photoperiod simultaneously, but the degree would vary according to the cultivar. Cultivars have been classified based on these two factors (248, 356, 530). Temperature affects both the photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiodinsensitive cultivars.Generally, high temperature accelerates and low temperature delays heading (5, 6, 90, 126, 186, 307, 339, 340, 370, 376, 409, 410, 439, 456, 531). Some reports, however, have shown that high temperature delays flowering (15, 18, 394). The speedup of the photoperiod response by high temperature is an overall effect, but it does not indicate the specific effect on the different stages leading to flowering. The effect of temperature on the BVP, photoinductive period, panicle differentiation and development, and critical photoperiod has not been fully studied.Uekuri (506, 507) studied the effect of low temperature during the BVP and found a definite delay in attaining the PSP. The degree of extension of the BVP by low temperature varied with the cultivars used. The growing point of the shoot is the receptive organ for the low-temperature effect, not the leaf blades (506). Ahn (5) reported that high temperature reduced the BVP but had very little effect on the PSP. As early as 1931, Fuke had considered the effect of temperature during the photoinductive period. He used bamboozle to lower the darkroom temperature, but the 5-10? C decrease had little effect on heading.Temperatures supra 20? C to 29? C accelerate panicle initiation (24, 341). Vergara and Lilis (524) showed that the vegetative primordium was converted to reproductive primordium at the same time or at the same morphological sta ge regardless of temperature (21-32? C). 14 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod Haniu et a1 (1 15) found similar results. These results belie those reported by Noguchi and Kamata (341) and Best (24). Temperatures below 15? C inhibited initiation and bud development (156). Floral induction, however, is possible at 15? C (341) but not at 12 or 40oC (115).Because many test plants died in the growing process, 15? C is assumed to be near the lowest limit for rice growth (341). The optimum temperature reported for photoinduction is 30o C (1 15). The question still remains as to whether a critical temperature for photoinduction exists. The optimum temperature for photoinduction may vary depending upon the photoperiod being used. The optimum temperature tended to be higher under a longer photoperiod and vice versa (24, 364). Putting it another way, at a certain temperature each cultivar has its own optimum day length under which it flowers at the earliest date (459, 57 2). minute microscopic studies of the development of the panicle primordium have shown that high temperature accelerates panicle development (260). The critical temperature for young panicle differentiation has been reported to be 18oC (555). Best (24) has also shown that panicle development, especially in its later stages, is accelerated at high temperatures (35-37oC). On the other hand, low temperature markedly retards panicle primordium development, and, below 25oC, the panicle may not emerge completely from the flag leaf sheath (24). A night temperature of 24. 4oC was found more favorable than 29 and 35? C in accelerating the flowering of the Elon-elon cultivar (263). High night temperature accelerates flowering (220). This was attributed to increased production of florigen during the dark period. This may not be the case and dissecting plants after photoinductive treatments may reveal if it was an acceleration in panicle development and exsertion earlier than in panicle ini tiation. Others have found that the acceleration in flowering with high temperature is the result of acceleration in panicle exsertion, which, in turn, is the result of shorter flick interval (524).Obviously, caution should be interpreted in determining the time of panicle initiation by observing the heading date because the exact date of panicle initiation cannot be determined by this method. Measurements and methods of testing photoperiod sensitivity Most studies on the photoperiodism of the rice plant have been considered from two standpoints, namely, classification of the cultivar into photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-insensitive types and cadence of the degree of sensitivity. The classification may be relatively easy, but the measurement is rather complex (195).As a result, several methods of measuring photoperiod sensitivity have been developed. Studies on the measurement of photoperiod sensitivity are usually based on the reduction in the number of days as a result of short-day treatment (1 16, 195, 205, 327, 329, 357, 553, 574). Other methods were more specific they measured the optimum photoperiod (40), critical photoperiod (351), or the gradient of the response curve (34, 192, 247) as the basis of sensitivity. Hara (116) was the first to measure photoperiod sensitivity using the formula X The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 15 = T .Y/Y X 100, where Y is the number of days required to head under standard conditions and T is the number of days required under an 8-h photoperiod. Several similar formulas have been used by other workers. The percentage or index obtained from such formulas, however, does not clearly define photoperiod sensitivity. The results usually hold up only to the area where the rice was tested since the natural day length is usually used as the control. Chandraratna (37, 40) used second-degree polynomials to work out the minimum heading duration and optimum photoperiod this method involved using at least three photoperiods.He showed that cultivars differ in both characters. Oka (352) and Katayama (192, 201) measured the critical photoperiod and the degree of sensitivity of several cultivars using different methods and formulas and came up with their pet method of measurement. Both workers used the natural day length as a basis for computation and assumed that flowering occurs 30 d after photoinduction. Best (25) and Li (249), using a method similar to Chandraratnas (34, 37, 40), measured sensitivity based on response curves obtained by plotting the time from sowing to floral initiation on the grade and the photoperiod used on the abscissa.The method, however, requires a wide range of photoperiods. Li (249) also studied photoperiod sensitivity in damage of the BVP and the PSP. The BVP was obtained in plants great(p) under 10 h of light, and the PSP (which is a measure of sensitivity) by subtracting the growth duration under the 10-h photoperiod from that under the 16-h photoperio d. The PSP values obtained show the possible maximum range in growth duration as a result of extending the photoperiod.The photoperiodic characteristics of a rice plant have been described by Stewart (458) who used a different standard based on 1) basic vegetative period in legal injury of degree-days (based on temperature accumulation), 2) photoinduction period in degree-days or degree-minutes (using store night length), and 3) panicle development period in degree-days (based on temperature accumulation). Tests under field conditions were study by this method and predictions were made on the response of the cultivar sown in different months. In Japan, the flowering response is evaluated using the floral stages (135, 463).The Japanese workers have used the scale of 0-7, based mainly on the length of the developing panicle. This destructive measurement is more accurate than the usual days from sowing to flowering or treatment to flowering. The preference of the most appropriate method of testing and describing the response to photoperiod depends upon the purpose of the experiment and the available facilities. From the physiological standpoint, however, controlled photoperiod and temperature are desired because of their advantages over natural photoperiods and temperatures. Date-of- set experimentsDay length changes rhythmically within a year and varies depending upon the latitude. The amount of change in day length during the rice cropping season differs from one latitude to another (Fig. 5). Even in locations at the same latitude the day length during the cropping season may differ because the planting dates 16 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 5. Day length changes during the cropping season at discordant locations in Asia. may differ greatly depending mostly on the rain evenfall recipe at each location. At northern latitudes (Sapporo, 43? N, and Konosu, 36? N) day ength increases and then decreases during the cropping season (F ig. 5). At lower latitudes (Taipei, 25? N, and Los Banos, 14? N) day length decreases during the main growing season. heartfelt the equator (Bukit Merah, 5? N) there is little change. These differences in day length during the growing season may account for the wide range of photoperiod response of rice cultivars. A rice cultivar that must have less than 12 h o daylight to flower will obviously flower too late at the northern latitudes because rime will set in before harvest. In the northern hemisphere, the longest days are in June and the shortest are in December.Taking these into account, the photoperiod response of the rice cultivars can be tested to a limited extent by planting the cultivars at a certain location at different dates. Maximum differences in growth duration can be obtained in the May and November plantings if temperatures are not too low for growth. If a rice? fs growth duration changes more than 30 d, agronomists usually consider it photoperiod sensitive or a se asonal cultivar. As Best (24) has pointed out, this metre is not specific enough for research on photoperiodism, and caution should be taken in evaluating the data obtained.These phenological data, however, are important to breeders in selecting ecotypes. This method of testing sensitivity to photoperiod has been followed in Australia (245), Brazil (l03, 579), China (44, 356, 582), India (98, 99, 101, 214, 220, 295, 298, 423), Indonesia (467), Japan (533, 548), Korea (247, 466), Malaysia (74, 77, 244), Philippines (91, 512), Russia (452), Senegal (66), Sierra Leone (68, 536), Sri Lanka (112, 259, 402), Thailand (381), Trinidad (325), and United States of America (177, 180). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 17These experiments strongly confirm the existence of wide cultivar differences in the effect of planting date on flowering date. Many of the results obtained from this type of testing, however, are not applicable to resembling cultivars braggart(a) at d ifferent latitudes. A cultivar can be insensitive to day length in Malaysia but sensitive in Taiwan. Results of field tests at a certain latitude are, therefore, not eer applicable at another latitude. Some published papers on the use of this testing method failed to mention latitude or the place where the tests were conducted.Under natural conditions very small differences in day length can affect the rice plant. In Malacca (Malaysia), the difference between the maximum and the minimum day lengths is only 14 min and yet the cultivar Siam 29 takes 329 d to flower when planted in January and only 161 d when planted in September (76). Another instance wake the sensitivity of the rice plant to small differences in day length was reported in a date-of-planting experiment in Malaysia (244). There was a difference of as much as 156 d in the growth duration of photoperiodsensitive cultivars when planted in the same month but in different years (Table 2).This presumably resulted from diff erences in weather during the critical periods. Cloudy weather early or late in the day shortens the twilight hour, thus reduce the day length. Toriyama et al (490) tested rice cultivars involving not only monthly planting but also sowing at different latitudes (Sri Lanka, Taiwan, and Japan). This gives a better idea of the photoperiodic response of the cultivars but involves much work and cooperation. Ecology and photoperiodism Rice can be grown over a wide range of environmental conditions, from the equator to about 53? N latitude, leading to the differentiation and establishment of various(a) ecotypes and forms. The great diversity in photoperiod sensitivity from one latitude to another or within a latitude probably indicates that the rice cultivars predominantly cultivated in each area are those that have been selected on the basis of local adaptability (that is, adaptability to the temperature of the rice-growing season, day length, and duration of the growing season) to assu re the full development of the plant and the best possible balance between vegetative and reproductive growth (423, 530, 532, 584, 585).Table 2. Growth duration (days from sowing to flowering) of photo. period-sensitive cultivars when planted in January 1962 and 1963 at several localities in Malaysia (244). Cultivar Locality Jan 1962 Jan 1963 Difference Engkatek Telok Chengai 136 292 156 Kota Bahru 146 243 97 Kuala Lumpur 134 97 37 Subang Bukit Merah 270 224 46 lntan 117 Kuala Lumpur 171 138 33 Kota Bahru 276 176 100 18 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod A major(ip) problem in studying the ecology of the rice plant, especially in reference to photoperiodism, is that cultivars in farmers fields keep changing.For example, Hara reported in 1930 that Japanese cultivars were more sensitive than the cultivars from mainland China and Taiwan. He concluded that the lower the latitude of the region of the native habitat, the less sensitive were the cultivars there. Wada (531), using 134 cultivars, showed contrasting results . the cultivars from the northern region of Japan had lower photoperiod sensitivity than those from the southern region. Recent papers, however, generally harmonize that among the photoperiod-sensitive cultivars, the lower the latitude of dissemination, the higher the sensitivity (351, 352, 356, 531, 583).The cultivars in the tropics or lower latitudes are usually late maturing (long growth duration). Many studies show that the late cultivars are more sensitive to photoperiod than the early ones (116, 248, 357, 511, 563, 583). In the tropics, where rice can be grown any time of the year provided there is sufficient water, photoperiod sensitivity presents certain problems. During the off-season, when the day length during the early growth stage is increasing, the sensitive cultivars are uneconomical to use because they take a very long time to produce any grain.For wider adaptability, cultivars should have low photoperiod sensit ivity (53, 70) and thus have little differences in growth duration when planted at different times of the year or at varying latitudes. Insensitive cultivars have been successfully grown at different latitudes where rice is used as a crop (45, 351, 352, 511, 532, 568. This indicates that it should not 6. Growth duration of IR8 planted in June or July at 12 sites in Asia. La Trinidad and Kanke are high-altitude areas (52). The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 19 e difficult to introduce new photoperiod-insensitive cultivars to different ricegrowing areas or to culture them year-round in the tropics. The plant breeders, as the varieties coming out indicate, are developing more photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. commodious testing in various rice-growing areas of the world has established the wide adaptability of photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. In general, the longer the BVP the less variation ingrowth duration and the stronger the PSP the greater the variation i n growth duration (581).The wide adaptability and the stable growth duration of IR8, a photoperiod-insensitive cultivar, are indicated by the data furnished by cooperators in various parts of the world. IR8? fs growth duration varied within a range of 20 d at latitudes from 11o to 27oN except at high altitudes where low temperatures prevailed during part of the growing season (Fig. 6). A more informative example of the effect of temperature comes from monthly planting at Los Banos, Philippines, and at Joydebpur, Bangladesh (Fig. 7).A parity between the monthly mean temperatures and mean photoperiods shows that the more variable heading pattern at Joydebpur is more closely associated with temperature rather than with the prevailing photoperiod. The effect of low temperature on the improved tropical cultivars becomes more obvious in photoperiod-insensitive cultivars. 7. Mean monthly temperatures and day length in relation to the growth duration of IR8 at Los Banos, Philippines, and J oydebpur, Bangladesh (52) 20 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod predisposition to photoperiod of rice cultivars in the deep water areas is an important characteristic for survival (104, 520). The locomote rice cultivars are highly photoperiod sensitive. They are planted early in the season when the soil can still be worked and without danger of submerging the young seedlings. florescence occurs when the floodwater peaks or starts receding. If the cultivar flowers when the floodwater is still rising, it would mean the complete loss of the crop if the panicles are submerged. propagation ability ceases after panicle emergence.Harvesting is usually done when the floodwaters have receded. The maturity of aimless rice cultivars coincides with the receding of the annual floodwaters which may be 150-270 d after sowing. Such a long growth duration requires a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar. So far, there is no known tropical cultivar that has a long growth duration an d is not sensitive to photoperiod. Photoperiod sensitivity may work as a safety mechanism when precise planting dates are not followed and environmental conditions such as water level cannot be effectively controlled.If the date of sowing or transplanting is delayed because of insufficient rainfall, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar may still mature at its usual time (352, 382). Plants are not seriously damaged if left in the seedbed for prolonged periods because the growth duration of the main crop is sufficiently long for the plants to adjust. Thus, land preparation and transplanting can be staggered (382). Maturation of the crop at the same time. as with photoperiod-sensitive cultivars planted at different dates, may reduce rat and biting louse damage in any one field. Also, harvesting and drying are simplified.If the soil is not sufficiently fertile, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar will continue its compelled vegetative growth until the short days come. This would give the plan t enough time to reach a reasonable plant weight and accumulate enough carbohydrates before flowering (528). Thus, a photoperiod-sensitive cultivar generally may be more resistant to reproving conditions. Long-growthduration cultivars (essentially photoperiod sensitive) are least affected by strong soil reduction (549). Most upland rice cultivars have short growth duration and are photoperiodinsensitive (11, 12).However, in areas where the rainfall pattern is bimodal, as in northern Thailand, the cultivars are of medium growth duration and are photoperiod-sensitive . possibly another indication of the greater specific adaptability of long-growth-duration cultivars to inauspicious conditions. The sensitivity to photoperiod of wild species has also been studied in relation to their ecological dispersion. Most of the wild rice materials tested were sensitive (191, 201, 205, 209, 353). They suggested that this sensitivity favors the wild rice plants and is mayhap essential to their s urvival. Terminology used in describing photoperiod ensitivity There is confusion in the terms used to describe the response of the rice plant to day length (515). Often, the terms used for growth duration are also used for response to photoperiod (see Table 3). As early as 1912, Kikkawa pointed out that The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 21 Table 3. Some terms used in describing the growth duration and day length response of rice cultivars. Terms References Response to day lengths date fixed vs period fixed season fixed vs period fixed season bound vs period bound punctual fixed vs periodically fixed short-day plant vs long-day plant ensitive vs indifferent sensitive vs insensitive sensitive vs less sensitive short-day plant vs indifferent plant strongly photoperiodic vs weakly photoperiodic sensitive vs photosensitive vs photononsensitive day length sensitive vs day photoperiodic photoperiodic insensitive length nonsensitive early, medium, and late long-aged vs short-aged early flowering vs late flowering late maturing vs early maturing Season of planting aman vs non-aman yala vs maha winter vs summer main-season vs off-season first crop vs second crop wet vs dry season aus, aman, boro, rabi, kharif Growth duration 33 7 214, 511 308 1, 99, 336 3 68, 352, 353 21, 98, 449, 538 563 51 1 195, 352 339 574 91, 276, 277, 281 259 158 3, 230, 374 427 112 444 Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand China Philippines Bangladesh, India it is purposeless to classify the rice cultivars of the world into such groups as early, medium, late, aus, or aman. He said, however, that this classification is useful in districts where the climates are similar. The use of the terms photoperiod-sensitive and photoperiod-nonsensitive in reporting the flowering response of a rice cultivar to changes in day length has been suggested (515).weak photoperiod-sensitive is sometimes used in place of photoperiod-nonsensitive because the existence of a completely photoperiod-no nsensitive cultivar is difficult to prove. Weakly photoperiod-sensitive is also used to describe cultivars whose flowering is delayed by as many as 70 d by long photoperiods. However, those types can be planted any month of the year in the tropics and can be expect to flower within the crop season. The terms short-day plant and long-day plant are not satisfactory because most rice cultivars immediately are short-day plants.Sensitive and insensitive, sensitive and indifferent, and sensitive and less sensitive are questionable terms. Because the response being described is a response to light period and not only to light, the terms photosensitive and photononsensitive are inappropriate. 22 The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 8. Effect of four photoperiod treatments on the seeding-to-heading period of seven rice cultivars. Chang and Vergara (51, 52, 53) classified rice cultivars into four types using the length of the BVP and PSP as criteria (Fig. 8).Their classif ication was based on duration of plants grown in the greenhouse. Under this classification, the Japanese varieties, such as Fujisaka 5 and Norin 20 (Appendix), do not fall under any category because they have a short BVP and short PSP. Also, at least four photoperiods (10, 12, 14, and 16 h) are needed to classify the cultivars. A more practical grouping could be as follows (using also the length of the BVP and PSP). 1. Photoperiod nonsensitive . very short PSP (less than 30 d) and BVP varying from short to long. 2. Weakly photoperiod-sensitive . arked increase in growth duration when photoperiod is longer than 12 h PSP may exceed 30 d, but flowering occurs under any long photoperiod. 3. Strongly photoperiod sensitive sharp increase in growth duration with increase in photoperiod no flowering beyond critical photoperiod BVP usually short (not more than 40 d). Cultivars tested under only two photoperiods, such as 10 and 14 h, can also be classified according to these groupings (1 1). Agronomists and farmers would tend to use these groupings. The flowering response of the rice plant to photoperiod 23 Inheritance of vegetative growth durationThe inheritance of the duration from seeding to heading in cultivated rices has been studied by many research workers, but the findings have resulted in diverse interpretations. Three categories of transmissible postulates were generally offered 1) monogenic or digenic control of heading date, with earliness dominant to lateness 2) monogenic or digenic control of flowering date, with lateness being a dominant characteristic and 3) binary-factor inheritance in which the F 2 population showed a continuous and often unimodal distribution and in which the same population might produce a bimodal distribution when grown in a different season (44, 509).In experiments where photoperiod sensitivity was bring ind, delayed flowering under a long photoperiod was generally inherited as a monogenic or digenic dominant trait (38, 242, 40 6, 424, 567). In several crosses involving distantly related parents, sensitivity to photoperiod appeared to be a recessionary trait (242, 406). The continuous and transgressive segregation in several F 2 populations involving photoperiod-insensitive parents was ascribed to multiple genes, which indicated dominance of earliness (41, 95, 96, 97, 333, 389, 469, 554).However, in crosses among varieties in Yunnan duty in China, photoperiod sensitivity appeared to be a recessive trait in some F 1 hybrids (252). Some of the diverging interpretations just mentioned resulted partly from misfortune to recognize the composite nature of the vegetative growth period from seeding to panicle primordium initiation, partly from failure to control the interaction of the environmental factors (mainly photoperiod and air temperatures) and the different genes controlling the vegetative growth period, or from failure to relate the phenotypic expression with the revailing environment. Recent studies at IRRI (48, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 249) have demonstrated physiologically and genetically the feasibility of partitioning the vegetative growt