Management Across Cultures

Management Across Cultures This report gives an insight on the topic Managing Across Cultures, and also on the following issues, it tackles the meaning of Culture, its importance and relevance, It also looks at how people from different cultures come together to share the same work values, The importance of culture in work environments and what are the various management procedures to be adopted when dealing with people from across cultures.Culture, simply put can be seen as the way of life of certain people and Managing across cultures can be seen as a way of bringing people from different cultures together using quality management, and in order do that, culture is a very important tool.Three approaches have been adopted in quality management research by Form, 1979, which is known as the Convergence approach, Child and Kieser 1979, Divergence approach and Hofstede 1980, Culture specific. All these approaches shall also be looked into and see how it relates to culture. Procedure/ methodology For this report, six links were provided by Mr. Peter Godwin and on careful evaluation on all the links, two seem most appropriate for the report and they are: 1. Quality management: a cross cultural perspective by Alessandra Vecchi and Louis Brennan. School of business, Trinity college, Dublin, Ireland. 2. Handbook of cross-cultural psychology: social behavior and applications by By John W. Berry, Ype H. Poortinga, Marshall H. Segall, Janak Pandey, ÇiÄÅ ¸dem Kà ¢Ãƒâ€žÃ… ¸ità §ibaÃ…Å ¸i Findings The term culture has been found to mean different things to different people, for some, it is dynamic and passed down from generations to generations, it has also been described as the Eye of the world. Cultures differ all around the world and for this people view it differently just as they view work values. Work values can been seen as ones performance worth, the way culture affects these values is very important if we intend to work and coexist together. Two very important standards have been set aside on how work is viewed: The entitlement standard, which states that people who work should be rewarded in return while the other one, the obligation standard is of the opinion that everyones obligation concerning work is to the society. All these can be viewed as difference of opinions on how work values are measured. International Research Team (1987) Cross cultural psychology. Handbook pg 373. Some countries debase work, for instance India, they tend to give priority to family values rather than work values. J. B. P Sinha, (1994) Cross cultural psychology. Handbook pg 373. Culture can never be over emphasized in work environments as the way people work is like their very way of life. In managing across countries, Quality managements theories have been developed to note how different managers deal with managerial polices within different cultures. Three main theories have been used to espouse quality management research and they are the Convergence, Form 1979, the Divergence, Child and Kieser 1979 and Culture specific, Hofstede 1980. Quality management. An international journal 16(2), 149. According to Form, Better management practices from managers coming from different cultures can be traced to effective learning, Form (1979) Quality management. International Journal pg 149, that is to say, once different people from different cultures are brought together to learn, they actually stand a better chance at being better managers, because they are all exposed to the same managerial practices in the long run, not at all minding where they are from, so learning helps to bridge culture barriers. The Divergence theory on the other hand is of the notion that in order to reduce performance, organizational practices must be adapted to the national context. Top managerial support turned to be a significant factor affecting quality practices. They must account for regional differences like Human resource development, customer focus and satisfaction. Child and Kieser, (1979) Quality management. An international journal pg 162. In the culture specific theory, it was viewed that if managers from different societies were faced with change, there will still be some cultural factors, like the way they think or behave that will cause them to react to change. Hofstede (1980) Quality management. An international journal pg 151. All these theories on quality management have been seen to affect culture in the sense that it shows how managers can transfer quality management practices between countries that differ in cultures and backgrounds, putting into consideration, the cultures that are most approbate to change and those that are not, thereby adopting the following management procedures or techniques in dealing with people from across cultures; Participative procedures Team work arrangement Reward schemes; thereby promoting job satisfaction among people. In the same wise, all these managerial procedures can be detrimental if not carefully looked into for not all countries view participative management in the same way, some might actually see it as a sign of weakness on the part of the managers, also in team work arrangement, not all cultures believe in team work, some believe that working alone enhances performance. An experiment was conducted by Earley (1993) cited in Cross cultural psychology pg 388, which involved using the Chinese, Israeli and Americans as subjects, During the experiment it was observed that the Israeli and Chinese teams worked together to work collectively while the Americans worked on their own individually, these shows another manner in which various cultures react to team work. And finally, the reward scheme, it was found out that the way managers from different countries view reward is totally different, for example, the Japanese managers tend to reward team work as against the Americans who believed that in dividual work is best and reward is based on individual effort. Suzuki and Kondo(1986) cited in cross cultural psychology handbook pg 389. In summary, Cultures importance in work related issues and how these can be managed can not be overemphasized because different people work in the way that they perceive is best and that why it is important to introduce quality management techniques in order to foster better management procedures being carried out in order to bridge any gaps in cultural barriers. Conclusion In managing across cultures, managers must put into consideration that they are dealing with different people from diverse cultures and backgrounds and before adopting any form of managerial procedures which involves, Participative management, team work arrangement and reward schemes, their cultural views and values taking into consideration , Forms theory of Convergence, Child and Kiesers theory of Divergence and Hofstedes theory of Culture specific, before knowing how well they would fit into any work environment either to work individually or as a team.

The Importance of Arts in Education

The Importance of Arts in Education To strive for excellence, schools ensure their provided education is impressive, compared to other independent school districts in the area, delivering the correct tools and necessities in education to prepare their students for the real world. Schools want students to choose from numerous amount of class options, programs and organizations their district provides. However, some hesitate keeping art programs such as band, theater, art, culinary, choir etc. in their district, simply because it will not be necessarily needed for their time in school when in fact, the arts, most specifically band, is proven to create a more affective impact on the brain than other arts improving cognitive development, verbal memory, mathematics, phonological awareness, reading development and other skills. Cognitive development is heavily proven when introduced to arts, resulting greater than those who are not artistically active. As a child, painting activities, drawing or dancing engage the brain to develop other complex ways of thinking when continued. How? They are natural forms of art. According to Author SousaThe arts are not just expressive and affective, they are deeply cognitive. They develop essential thinking toolspattern recognition and development; mental representations of what is observed or imagined; symbolic. This proves that something as simple as drawing, singing or dancing to a child, is more than increasing their mentality ability and developing different complex forms of thinking. Although the arts are often thought of as separate subjects, like chemistry or algebra, they really are a collection of skills and thought processes that transcend all areas of human engagement. (Sousa). Cognitive development plays a critical role in a childs future, leaving permanent ab ilities in and outside of school, keeping this gift through life because of effortless habits through childhood. Not only does musical training seek unique cognitive skills, musical training shares the same brain pathway process as mathematics therefore, is quite beneficial towards math. Music is closely connected to mathematics by ratios, proportions, music intervals, arithmetic progressions in music to geometric progressions in geometry, including the simplicity of counting one, two, three, four, in a measure. Researchers conducted a study that piano lessons would increase math scores, specifically focused on proportions and ratios which are difficult as an elementary student along with another group of student without piano lessons but with a computer software program. Four months after the study, the group of kids with musical training scored one-hundred sixteen percent higher on proportional mathematic skills than those without the musical training. According to Author Sousa, These findings are significant because proportional mathematics is not usually introduced until 5th or 6th grade an d because a grasp of proportional mathematics is essential to understanding science and mathematics at higher grade levels. Math is known as a complex core class and is a subject that society does not know that makes it a lot easier on kids who study music at a young age. Another study in California took in students with low socioeconomic skills who were not involved with music, take music lessons eighth through twelfth grade following a test that would determine if the involvement with music would benefit kids in the class. The results of the study shown the musical training increased their test scores in mathematics and scored significantly higher than those low socioeconomic students who were not involved in music. (Sousa). History and geography test scores were affected through the music lessons increasing by forty percent. Not only did the music lessons improve mathematic skills. But history and geography, which is beneficial for the other core classes in education. Music is greatly related to mathematics but yet, in addition can also have an advantage in reading development. Identical to the brains responsive connections between music and math, music comprehension picks up specifically reading skills, allowing the brain to recognize auditory memory in a very intricate and extraordinary way. Researchers suggest this relationship results because both music and written language involve similar decoding and comprehension reading processes(Sousa). Students reading fluency is finer when in constant musical training. The abilities of better reading development through art is an advantage in the classroom increasing test scores, and comprehensions compared to other kids who dont study music. With reading being another complex core class, it will ease students who suffer from reading difficulty in their future, especially since reading is an everyday action for every movement in our body through thought processes during the day. The arts assist many acts we do that we do not think of and expand our abilities as human beings to do certain activities with our brain others cannot. The arts create and benefit other skills that will determine how we perform in school to our education, followed by a project by the National Endowment for the Arts and the U.S. Justice Department called the YouthARTS Development project. The program established young adults involved in art programs increased cooperation with others, optimistic viewpoints towards school, self esteem along with other positive feedback that will greatly benefit through the students school years. the arts teach students how to learn from mistakes and press ahead, how to commit and follow through.(Arts and Smarts). This proves the arts make useful tools and potential standards for students who will manage challenges and problems well, considering how difficult the task may be which will not only be useful in school, but in the real world. Fine arts are a ble to reduce dropout rates, create a sustainable and well-balanced individual increasing socioeconomic skills, and have a good sense of leadership. (According to Jessica Hoffman Davis from Harvard Graduate School of Education from Arts and Smarts)We have been so driven to measure the impact of the arts in education that we began to forget that their strength lies beyond the measurable . The statement made by Davis, proves we underestimate what the arts can really do what they can create within students apart of it. The arts do not make one smarter, but they can discover unlimited pathways of what a brain could really do when introduced to the studies of music. Parents want their kids to turn out to be well balanced adults, but would be impossible without the engagement of both left and right sides of the brain, therefore, will require introduction to the Arts. The education system lies pressure in the four common core classes, without any consideration of the Arts, simply because learning how to play a trumpet is irrelevant to interest in the medical field or dancing and singing will not require you to be a lawyer. School districts need to be more aware of the potential their students could have through the arts if they take the time and learn about how important and relevant arts are with education . The brain awaits undiscovered passage ways and skills,as the importance of arts are waiting to make a difference in education References Bryant, Bob. The Importance of Fine Arts. Katy Independent School District. Bob Bryant, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 17 Evans, Karen. Arts and Smarts. Greater Good, Karin Evans, 1 Dec. 2008, greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/arts_smarts Rodale, Ardath. Education: the human touch. Prevention, Oct. 2003, p. 180. General OneFile, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GPSsw=wu=j020902v=2.1id=GALE%7CA108882595it=rasid=e9345db4ee24c3da8cbe281ea9b36868. Sousa, David A. How the arts develop the young brain: neuroscience research is revealing the impressive impact of arts instruction on students cognitive, social and emotional development. School Administrator, Dec. 2006, p. 26+. General OneFile, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GPSsw=wu=j020902v=2.1id=GALE%7CA156417562it=rasid=eb6b505e4a2204d78a0d342d22a3eda2.

The Nature of Education Shown in Two Photographs: :: Education Teaching Essays

The Nature of Education Shown in Two Photographs: Learning is a lifelong process. By learning, one acquires knowledge or develops the ability to perform new behaviors. It is common to think of learning as something that takes place in school, but much of human learning occurs outside the classroom, and people continue to learn throughout their lives. From the two photos, "The Lesson: Planning a Career" and "Instruction at Home", it is evident that learning continues throughout people's lives and affects almost everything they do. Moreover, the study of learning is important in many different fields. For example, teachers need to understand the best ways to educate their students. Psychologists, social workers, criminologists, and other human service workers need to understand how certain experiences change people's behaviors. Employers, politicians, and advertisers make use of the principles of learning to influence the behavior of workers, voters, and consumers . The photograph entitled, â€Å"The Lesson: Planning a Career,† taken by Ron James, shows three students who appear to be in a classroom receiving education to more or less succeed in the business world. It is also apparent that there is a hunger for knowledge, even at a grown age. But the shocking aspect of the photograph is that the students look older than the average college student. They look middle-aged, especially the third man sitting behind the two students up front. When taking the age factor into consideration, what comes to mind is the national system of formal education in the United States developed in the 19th century. The educational system formed paralleled the photo's presentation of â€Å"old† students. First, the photo indicated that Americans were more inclined to regard education as a solution to various social problems. Second, because of the students’ confidence in the power of education, more years of schooling were provided for a larger percentage of the population than other countries. Third, educational institutions were primarily governed by local authorities rather than by federal ones. Beside the age factor, the photo explicitly states three words, â€Å"Wages, Careers, and Colleges.† These three words seem to forcefully acknowledge the power of education; the power that further education can bring about higher wages and better career offerings, especially in a fast paced competitive world. In addition, the students in the photo appear to be bored or uninterested in the classroom. Their lack of interest in learning informs of their lack of choice, but to learn in order to succeed. The Nature of Education Shown in Two Photographs: :: Education Teaching Essays The Nature of Education Shown in Two Photographs: Learning is a lifelong process. By learning, one acquires knowledge or develops the ability to perform new behaviors. It is common to think of learning as something that takes place in school, but much of human learning occurs outside the classroom, and people continue to learn throughout their lives. From the two photos, "The Lesson: Planning a Career" and "Instruction at Home", it is evident that learning continues throughout people's lives and affects almost everything they do. Moreover, the study of learning is important in many different fields. For example, teachers need to understand the best ways to educate their students. Psychologists, social workers, criminologists, and other human service workers need to understand how certain experiences change people's behaviors. Employers, politicians, and advertisers make use of the principles of learning to influence the behavior of workers, voters, and consumers . The photograph entitled, â€Å"The Lesson: Planning a Career,† taken by Ron James, shows three students who appear to be in a classroom receiving education to more or less succeed in the business world. It is also apparent that there is a hunger for knowledge, even at a grown age. But the shocking aspect of the photograph is that the students look older than the average college student. They look middle-aged, especially the third man sitting behind the two students up front. When taking the age factor into consideration, what comes to mind is the national system of formal education in the United States developed in the 19th century. The educational system formed paralleled the photo's presentation of â€Å"old† students. First, the photo indicated that Americans were more inclined to regard education as a solution to various social problems. Second, because of the students’ confidence in the power of education, more years of schooling were provided for a larger percentage of the population than other countries. Third, educational institutions were primarily governed by local authorities rather than by federal ones. Beside the age factor, the photo explicitly states three words, â€Å"Wages, Careers, and Colleges.† These three words seem to forcefully acknowledge the power of education; the power that further education can bring about higher wages and better career offerings, especially in a fast paced competitive world. In addition, the students in the photo appear to be bored or uninterested in the classroom. Their lack of interest in learning informs of their lack of choice, but to learn in order to succeed.

Medieval Battle Tactics Essay -- History Battles Weapons Essays

Medieval Battle Tactics   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Medieval tactics were essential for an attack or siege of a castle. Many tactics and strategies helped develop much-improved version of an attacking artifact, like weapons and sieging machinery. The knights of Medieval England which were the cavalry, improved as the years went by, but never actually had any tactics or strategies. The usual knight would just go out there and fight. The knights were the counter offensive against a small siege, but they were ineffective against a large siege of a castle. A siege was very essential for medieval warfare. Siege was like the most important part of an attack; that is if you’re attacking a castle.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As you know no one inhabited New England back then in the Medieval Ages, so many nations were competing for it. One of them was Rome. Rome inhabited New England first, and as being the first settlers they left some of their customs, which among them was the key to war. The Roman legion composed of a huge amount of infantry and some cavalry was an important factor in Roman War. However, if Rome and England were compared then the cavalry of Rome later developed into the Knight. The well trained infantry of Rome’s legion for attacking and invading now was set to defend in Medieval England as it more compares to the castle. Now that you know some about the origination of the Knight and the castle, let’s get into the tactics used by the land units of Medieval England like the knight and the archers.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The knight, being the cavalry of the castle, and also the last line of defense between invaders and the castle, were inferior to a well trained army of foot soldiers. Usually, it was the knight’s ability and bravery decided the medieval battle. The Medieval Knight was trained from childhood. However, they were never taught any strategies. So, when it came to fighting in the battlefield, they used a guerilla warfare method where they would engage the enemy. This was nothing like the disciplined lines of musket men (soldiers with rifles) of the later British; but rather just went out there and everyone fought on their own like a free hand anything goes melee match. When traveling, the medieval knight traveled in a group, however the group was open to attacks because it was not arranged in a strategic way. Soon the knights, who had superior life, and had an advantage towards a one on ... ...troying the defender’s buildings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Trebuchet, on the other hand, was the biggest of all the siege weapons. Trebuchet lives up to its name meaning slinging machine. The trebuchet had a long arm that had a big end so that the end would help it propel when released. The arm was buckled down to one side, while the big end would hang in the air until the buckle was released. At the top of the arm you would find a sling with a rock inside. When the buckle was released there were usually soldiers at the other side with ropes attached to the weight, and helping it propel by pulling the ropes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  England came a long way from just plain foot soldiers with minimal padding, to armored knights and siege weapons. Perhaps it was because Feudalism must have affected the way that the medieval forces were and developed along the medieval era of England. Medieval War and War Tactics played a very important role in medieval life because it helped shape future generations of empires. With out war in the medieval ages of England, they would have probably not been prepared for their future role in war among other countries focusing on conquest and expansion of other parts of the world.

Compare Historical and Current Features of Public Health Essay

This essay will compare the 19th, 20th and 21st century in relation to the main public health strategies used in United Kingdom. It will also compare the similarities and differences of the living conditions in towns and cities between the three named centuries above. In comparing the differences between 19th, 20th and 21st century, the living conditions in the 19th century caused so many deaths. This is because health was very poor and people went through many health issues such as poor and over-crowded housing which caused the rapid spread of diseases, pollution and poor environment as people were ignorant to the causes and consequences of the pollution and poor sewage system which brought about terrible smell that was unbearable for living. Additionally, the poor law system in the 19th century, this strategy was set to take care of the under privileged mentioned above, such as the lower class people. Moreover in the 19th century, there was an episode of cholera outbreak which claimed so many lives. The cholera episode that was killing people became an interest to Dr John Snow (1813-1858). He did various investigations and he eventually found pointed out in his investigation a particular water supply that was coming from the contaminated River Thames was the cause of the cholera outbreak. In Beveridge’s report in the 20th century, it helped to bring a change to the educational standards in the areas that were highly affected by poverty. The Beveridge report stated that all working people must pay weekly contributions, those contributions were used as benefits by the government to pay people who were sick, unemployed, retired and widowed. The benefits helped the under privileged to meet some of their basic needs which were impossible for them in the 19th century. The National Health Service came into effectiveness by Clement Attlee’s, who was one of the members of the Labour Government due to the outcome of Snow’s report. With the 21st century, the public health was drastically changed compared to the 19th and 20th century. This was because the public health white paper, choosing health: making healthy choices easier, (2004) was introduced as the awareness of health was growing in size which forced the government to bring bout the public health white paper. This document promoted societal fairness, dealing with broad causes of ill-health, inequality in the society as well as identifying individuals needs to support and empower them. In the 21th century, people are more informed; technology and science have improved, making better medical system more efficient and effective with more improved living conditions, compared to the two previous centuries. The similarities between the 19th, 20th and 21st Century was that famous personalities mentioned above aimed at improving the health of the populace over time. They all carried out numerous investigations and research to bring about positive results. In the 21st, there was the Health Protection Agency, an independent organisation that focuses on protecting individuals’ health throughout the UK. There is also the National Institute for Clinical Excellency also an independent organisation; their responsibility is to provide national guidance and treatment of ill-health which has improved the living standard, condition and a huge improvement of health in the wider UK population. Conclusion Before public health came into effect living condition was very poor causing premature death. There was also inequality; the wealthy could afford to live in better areas, good education and to pay for good medical treatment. The under privileged were left with no choice but to live one day at a time. In the 20th and 21st century, there were so many strategies used to improve health and inequality in Britain. However in the 21th century, there were more strategies implemented to improve public health which were set out in a document and had three foundation values. All these was put together to improve, protect and empower the lives of individuals in the UK population.

Article Review On “Evidence Based Management(EBM), The Very Idea” Essay

Introduction There has been a recent trend in commending evidence-based approaches for management and policy making decision in the public sector. Evidence based management(EBM) is an aspect that has been heavily developed and relied on in certain practices such as evidence-based policy and evidence-based medicine.   These forms of approaches utilize recent best evidence in decision making and management. Evidence based management(EBM) involves   managerial based decisions and organizational practices that are informed by the best and available scientific evidence with the best evidence in this case being the norms of natural sciences. Evidence based approaches have gained fame over the years. The same has not been without its ups and down. This has seen evidence based management generate debate with writers such as Learmouth & Harding (2007) opposing the very idea of utilizing the widely acclaimed evidence based approach in fields such as health care. The document reviews the(Learmouth & Harding (2007) article with a look at the evidence provided by the two in support of their opposition to the use of evidence based management (EBM) in health care. The positives and negatives of their arguments will be reviewed. Evidence of the same will be based on the Learmouth & Harding (2007) article as well as literature from related articles. Discussion The evidence based management as analyzed by Learmouth & Harding (2007) article presents a strong case that shows that there is reason to believe and support the research bothwriters   have accomplished to discredit the use of this approach especially in health care. Both Learmouth & Harding (2007) raise a good debate on the development of evidence based approaches to management and organization. The researchers clearly raise the issues they feel plague the use of evidence based management(EBM) in health care and in any other setting. To Learmouth & Harding (2007), this is an approach that is a misguided aspect with the unpredictable nature of evidence in the management discipline. Also, Learmouth & Hardin (2007) have the take that evidence based management is not there to help the public service and will not at the end contribute anything meaningful to the effectiveness in organizations (Axelsson, 1998).   This is in spite of other systems such as evidence based medicine beinghailed as the best method of reducing uncertainty in clinical practice. Learmouth & Harding (2007) opposition to the use of evidence based management(EBM) in organizational setting raises and opens the reader’s eyes to a major issue in their debate-arriving at an agreement on evidence. One is made to agree with Learmouth & Harding (2007) debate that it is one thing to reach a consensus in medicine and other fields and another in reaching the same in social sciences so as to flag the appropriateness of the use of evidence based management(EBM) in health care. Such techniques as the use of the evidence based medicine has worked well but this should not be the assumption in all the cases as highlighted by Learmouth & Harding (2007). The fact that the two researchers also disapprove of generalizations in the different approaches is a positive aspect in the research. The reasons the two give is valid in that the cause and effect connections that are there in organizational research are not in any way readily subject to controlled experiments such as those in medicine. However, there is an oversight and thus a disadvantage in Learmouth & Harding (2007) debate. One can counter their opposition to the generalization point on the use of evidence based management(EBM)in that where the presence of clear necessitates the establishment of decision making rules which the scientific community is able to endorse. Learmouth & Harding (2007) would want their readers to believe that a solution to finding a cause and effect connection in organizational settings does not exist but this is not the case (Parker, 2001).This is a side that is missing in their debate in that over the years, there has been the establishment of consensus around the use of constructive reviews and meta-analysis in order to identify the convergent findings in the organizational research and the boundary conditions. Learmouth & Harding (2007) do not leave any option to the reader to see a chance in the establishment of a movement towards evidence based management which would even be capable of fostering great attention to the convergent findings and their implications to practice and science. One feels that Learmouth & Harding (2007) are advocating and supporting the continued fragmentation and novelty in the current organizational research. By focusing on the high consensus areas, there will be a chance for EBM (evidence based management) to have efforts directed towards accounting for divergence and inconsistency in the areas of limited convergence in organizational research(Linstead & Grafton-Small, 1992). Managerialism is also another major issue that Learmouth & Harding (2007) raise with the use of Evidence Based Management (EBM).   The researchers support the opposition to the use of the same in such systems as organizations. According to Learmouth & Harding (2007), the use of EBM supports and reinforces Managerialism. The evidence based approaches are used to reinforce the managerial power with some forms of legitimized forms of evidence while they obscure non-managerial ways of understanding organizational life. One can associate with such an argument in that the evidence given by Learmouth & Harding (2007) is that there have been long standing workplace ethnographies which have stood to benefit organizations by such acts as exposing power, inequality and conflicts in the organizations (Kovner et al., 2000).   Thus elements such as Managerialism have no chance of prospering in such an environment. This greatly benefits the organization. However, there is a downside to the evaluation of only one side of the effect of EBM as far as Managerialism is concerned. The evidence by Learmouth & Harding (2007) is hinged on bias on whether there has been enough inquiry to the effective ways of organizing and managing based on less non-traditional and hierarchical view of workers, governance and employment (Ferlie et al., 2001). It is not justifiable to brush off EBM on managerialism basis since the same would serve as a counterforce to the self- serving and arbitrariness bias observed in the form firms are managed and organized nowadays (Parker, 2001). Any innovation can be affected in that it can be misused. Evidence of such is the presence of a regulation in the use of evidence based medicine in the UK National Health Service. However, the use of EBM can act as the basis to develop effective organizational and professional competencies (Harris, 1998). Learmouth & Harding (2007) are wary of the role that EBM may come to acquire in terms of power. The two are skeptic of the fact that EBM may become an avenue that serves interests. This shows how Learmouth & Harding (2007) have put a great deal of effort into all the aspects that may hinder the smooth operation of such programs as EBM in health care. As researchers, they have succeeded in evaluating all the angles of a research issue. Learmouth & Harding (2007) show that it would be naà ¯ve to not think of politics as the same are pervasive and real. Such an aspect as the development and implementation of EBM to organization and management can affect such issues as how legitimacy, funding   and influence is allocated to such groups as practitioners, teachers and scholars. Management is free of such aspects such as social and political interests as well as moral considerations.   However, true as this may be and a correct inference by Learmouth & Harding (2007), power and politics cannot be avoided. The real problem that Learmouth & Harding (2007) seem to be wary of is that qualitative research may not be able to meet the evidentiary standards that EBM may incorporate and employ (Linstead & Grafton-Small, 1992).  Ã‚   Also, Learmouth & Harding (2007) seem to be wary that qualitative research may be devalued which will result in the decline of legitimacy as well as its funding. Evidence cannot be said to be of particular measure or method social science uses. As opposed to Learmouth & Harding (2007) hesitation with unobstructed power in the use of EBM, this may not be the case as qualitative research is a sure way of identifying the areas in science that are not clear. Qualitative research is capable of being put into practice to identify the meanings underlying the observed patterns and also in helping to translate the evidence into practice through exploration of the politics, subjectivity and the conflicts that are involved in the changes to organizational practice (Carter, 2000). Conclusion The implementation and the design of the EBM is not an aspect that should be generalized and opposed without full evaluation. The implementation as well as the design of EBM should be subject to critical inquiry. The critique by Learmouth & Harding (2007) evades some aspects and in doing so mislead the audience. There is no denying that EBM may affect all the management aspects but the same should not be a reason to abandon the approach. There should and will be movements towards EBM which involve many of the community that are interested in the design of the same. There will be development, implementation, learning and redesign over time. Fear of loss should not hinder the focus for the opportunity on constructive change. References Axelsson , R . 1998 . ‘ Towards an Evidence-based Health Care Management ’ , International    Journal of Health Planning and Management , 13 , 307 – 17 . Ferlie , E . , J . Gabbay , L . Fitzgerald , et al . 2001 . ‘ Evidence-based Medicine and   Ã‚  Ã‚   Organisational Change: an Overview of Some Recent Qualitative Research ’ , in L .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ashburner ( ed .), Organisational Behaviour and Organisational Studies in Health Care:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Refl ections on the Future . Basingstoke : Palgrave Macmillan, pp . 18 – 42 . Carter , J . 2000 . ‘ New Public Management and Equal Opportunities in the NHS ’ , Critical   Ã‚  Ã‚   Social Policy , 20 , 61 – 83 . Harrison , S . 1998 . ‘ The Politics of Evidence-based Medicine ’ , Policy and Politics , 26 , 15 –   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   31 . Kovner , A . R . , J . J . Elton and J . Billings . 2000 . ‘ Evidence-based Management ’ , Frontiers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   of Health Services Management , 16 , 3 – 24 . Linstead , S . and R . Grafton-Small . 1992 . ‘ On Reading Organizational Culture ’ ,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Organization Studies , 13 , 331 – 55 . Parker , M . 2002 . Against Management: Organization in the Age of Managerialism .   Ã‚  Ã‚   Cambridge : Polity Press Learmouth, M., & Harding, N. (April 01, 2007). Evidence-based management: The very   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   idea.  Sage Public Administration Abstracts,  34,  1.)

Departmental Store

A department store is a retail establishment with a building open to the public which offers a wide range of consumer goods such as clothing, housewares, furniture and appliances. It typically offers a choice of multiple merchandise lines, at variable price points, in different product categories (known as â€Å"departments† hence the name).Department stores usually sell products including clothing, furniture, home appliances, toys, cosmetics, gardening, toiletries, sporting goods, do it yourself, paint and hardware and additionally select other lines of products such as food, books, jewelry, electronics, stationery, photographic equipment and baby and pet needs. Certain department stores are further classified as discount stores.Big-box stores and hypermarkets have become a modern equivalent to historical department stores. Department stores have a supermarket-type central customer checkout area near the front of the store, or alternatively, sales counters within each departm ent. Department stores are usually part of a retail chain of many stores situated around a country or several countries. Some may be independent retailers, existing entirely independent or as licensed dealers.History Origins The origins of the department store lay in the growth of the conspicuous consumer society at the turn of the 19th century. As economic growth, fuelled by the Industrial Revolution, steadily expanded through the nineteenth century, the affluent bourgeois middle-class grew in size and wealth. This urbanized social group, sharing a culture of consumption and changing fashion, was the catalyst for the emergence of the retail revolution of the period.As rising prosperity and social mobility increased the number of people with disposable income in the late Georgian period, window shopping was transformed into a leisure activity and entrepreneurs, like the potter Josiah Wedgwood, pioneered the use of marketing techniques to influence the prevailing tastes and preferenc es of society.   One of the first department stores may have been Bennett's in Derby, first established as an ironmongers in 1734.It still stands to this day, trading in the same building. However, the first reliably dated department store to be established, was Harding, Howell & Co, which opened in 1796 on Pall Mall, London.   An observer writing in Ackermann's Repository, a British periodical on contemporary taste and fashion, described the enterprise in 1809 as follows: The house is one hundred and fifty feet in length from front to back, and of proportionate width.It is fitted up with great taste, and is divided by glazed partitions into four departments, for the various branches of the extensive business, which is there carried on. Immediately at the entrance is the first department, which is exclusively appropriated to the sale of furs and fans. The second contains articles of haberdashery of every description, silks, muslins, lace, gloves, &etc. In the third shop, on the right, you meet with a rich assortment of jewelry, ornamental articles in ormolu, french clocks, &etc.; and on the left, with all the different kinds of perfumery necessary for the toilette.The fourth is set apart for millinery and dresses; so that there is no article of female attire or decoration, but what may be here procured in the first style of elegance and fashion. This concern has been conducted for the last twelve years by the present proprietors who have spared neither trouble nor expense to ensure the establishment of a superiority over every other in Europe, and to render it perfectly unique in it's kind.This venture is described as having all of the basic characteristics of the department store; it was a public retail establishment offering a wide range of consumer goods in different departments. This pioneering shop was closed down in 1820 when the business partnership was dissolved. Department stores were established on a large scale from the 1840s and 50s, in France, the United Kingdom and the United States. Departmental Store A department store is a retail establishment with a building open to the public which offers a wide range of consumer goods such as clothing, housewares, furniture and appliances. It typically offers a choice of multiple merchandise lines, at variable price points, in different product categories (known as â€Å"departments† hence the name).Department stores usually sell products including clothing, furniture, home appliances, toys, cosmetics, gardening, toiletries, sporting goods, do it yourself, paint and hardware and additionally select other lines of products such as food, books, jewelry, electronics, stationery, photographic equipment and baby and pet needs. Certain department stores are further classified as discount stores.Big-box stores and hypermarkets have become a modern equivalent to historical department stores. Department stores have a supermarket-type central customer checkout area near the front of the store, or alternatively, sales counters within each departm ent. Department stores are usually part of a retail chain of many stores situated around a country or several countries. Some may be independent retailers, existing entirely independent or as licensed dealers.History Origins The origins of the department store lay in the growth of the conspicuous consumer society at the turn of the 19th century. As economic growth, fuelled by the Industrial Revolution, steadily expanded through the nineteenth century, the affluent bourgeois middle-class grew in size and wealth. This urbanized social group, sharing a culture of consumption and changing fashion, was the catalyst for the emergence of the retail revolution of the period.As rising prosperity and social mobility increased the number of people with disposable income in the late Georgian period, window shopping was transformed into a leisure activity and entrepreneurs, like the potter Josiah Wedgwood, pioneered the use of marketing techniques to influence the prevailing tastes and preferenc es of society. [1] One of the first department stores may have been Bennett's in Derby, first established as an ironmongers in 1734.It still stands to this day, trading in the same building. However, the first reliably dated department store to be established, was Harding, Howell & Co, which opened in 1796 on Pall Mall, London. [3] An observer writing in Ackermann's Repository, a British periodical on contemporary taste and fashion, described the enterprise in 1809 as follows: The house is one hundred and fifty feet in length from front to back, and of proportionate width.It is fitted up with great taste, and is divided by glazed partitions into four departments, for the various branches of the extensive business, which is there carried on. Immediately at the entrance is the first department, which is exclusively appropriated to the sale of furs and fans. The second contains articles of haberdashery of every description, silks, muslins, lace, gloves, &etc.In the third shop, on the r ight, you meet with a rich assortment of jewelry, ornamental articles in ormolu, french clocks, &etc.; and on the left, with all the different kinds of perfumery necessary for the toilette. The fourth is set apart for millinery and dresses; so that there is no article of female attire or decoration, but what may be here procured in the first style of elegance and fashion. This concern has been conducted for the last twelve years by the present proprietors who have spared neither trouble nor expense to ensure the establishment of a superiority over every other in Europe, and to render it perfectly unique in it's kind.This venture is described as having all of the basic characteristics of the department store; it was a public retail establishment offering a wide range of consumer goods in different departments. This pioneering shop was closed down in 1820 when the business partnership was dissolved. Department stores were established on a large scale from the 1840s and 50s, in France, the United Kingdom and the United States.